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HARVEY'S  LANGUAGE    COURSE 


ELEMENTS 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


COPIOUS  EXERCISES  IN  BOTH  CRITICISM  AND 
CONSTRUCTION    . 


VIRGINIA  WADDY 

Teacher  of  Rhetoric  in  the  Richmond  High  School,  Richmond,  Va, 


NEW-YORK     •:•     CI 

AMERICAN 


Copyright,  1889,  by 
VAN  ANTWERP,  BRAGG,  AND  COMPANY 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1888,  by 

VIRGINIA  WADDY, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress. 

WAODVS   RHET. 


I^rinteb  at 
Zbe  Eclectic  ptesa 
Cincinnati,  tO.  S.  B. 


PREFACE. 


The  object  aimed  at  in  the  preparation  of  this  work  has  been 
to  furnish  a  practical  treatise  on  Composition  and  Rhetoric, — 
one  sufficiently  elementary  for  the  lower  grades  of  the  high 
school,  and  at  the  same  time  comprehensive  enough  to  give  a 
fair  knowledge  of  the  principles  and  graces  of  Rhetoric. 

While  the  discussion  of  simple,  complex,  and  compound 
sentences  is  the  province  of  Grammar, — a  subject  usually  com- 
pleted before  that  of  Rhetoric  is  begun, — it  has  been  deemed 
advisable  to  include  these  topics,  for  the  pupil  seldom  possesses 
the  maturity  of  mind  to  comprehend  thoroughly  the  laws  of 
Grammar,  even  when  he  undertakes  to  master  the  elements  of 
Rhetoric;  moreover,  his  attention  has  been  directed  almost  ex- 
clusively to  analytical  processes,  to  the  neglect  of  synthetical ; 
hence,  he  may  be  skillful  in  discovering  the  relations  of  words 
in  sentences  formed  by  others,  and  be  but  a  bungler  in  giving 
expression  to  his  own  ideas.  For  a  like  reason,  also,  the  sub- 
ject of  Concord,  which  perhaps  belongs  still  more  strictly  to 
Grammar,  is  included;  not  all  of  the  syntactical  arrangements 
are  noticed,  only  those  wherein  the  grammatical  principle  re- 
ceives a  special  signification  from  the  rhetorical  point  of  view. 

The  Reproductions  furnish  material  for  practice  upon  the 
principles  under  discussion.  As  a  means  of  securing  ease  of  ex- 
pression, they  are  of  great  value ;  the  material  for  the  discourse 
being  furnished,  the  pupil  is  thus  enabled  to  concentrate  his  at- 
tention upon  the  form.  A  more  advanced  step  towards  original 
writing  is  found  in  the  Developments.  These  give  play  to  the 
imagination,  and  supply  the  details  of  a  connected  story;  they 

-also  furnish  an   excellent  test  of  style,   because  they  give  no 

(iii) 


iv  PREFACE. 

assistance.  In  the  first  Developments,  hints  are  given  to  guide 
the  pupil.  This  aid  should  be  given  with  succeeding  Develop- 
ments only  where  the  pupil  may  not  fully  understand  the  poem, 
or  where  he  might  be  discouraged  without  such  assistance. 

Although  it  may  be  said  that  the  finer  principles  of  literary 
taste,  fancy,  and  allusion,  and  the  subtle  music  of  rhythm,  are 
obtained  only  through  a  special  sense  developed  by  long  and 
minute  discipline,  and  belong  to  the  delicate  and  difficult  sci- 
ence of  criticism,  there  are  included  in  this  treatise  extracts 
from  masters  of  style,  to  which  attention  is  directed ;  for  it 
must  be  conceded  that,  since  a  true  appreciation  of  what  is 
best  in  our  literature  requires  years  of  careful  criticism,  the 
student's  attention  should  be  given  to  such  criticism  as  soon  as 
his  mind  has  attained  sufficient  maturity  for  the  consideration 
of  the  subject. 

The  "Exercises"  with  which  the  book  abounds  are  given, 
that  the  pupil  may  learn  discourse  by  applying  it.  Some  learn- 
ers may,  perhaps,  need  less  of  such  practice  than  others;  the 
teacher  can,  therefore,  omit  what  is  deemed  superfluous. 

This  work  is  in  every  respect  the  outgrowth  of  the  class- 
room; much  of  the  subject-matter  and  many  of  the  exercises 
have  been  given  as  oral  instruction  in  the  author's  classes,  and 
it  is  hoped  that  in  other  hands  it  will  stand  the  only  true  test 
of  a  school-book, — the  test  of  trial. 

Most  grateful  acknowledgment  is  due  to  Prof.  W.  F.  Fox, 
Principal  of  the  Richmond  Fligh  School,  for  assistance  and  en- 
couragement during  the  progress  of  the  work. 

Thanks  are  also  due  to  several  publishers  for  kindness  in 
allowing  selections  to  be  made  from  their  publications,  —  to 
Messrs.  Houghton,  Mifflin,  &  Co.,  to  the  Century  Company, 
:o  Messrs.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.,  to  Messrs.  Chas.  Scribner's 
Sons,  to  Messrs.  Roberts  Bros.,  to  Mr.  Parke  Godwin,  and 
o  others  whose  names  are  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
selections  copied. 

Richmond,  Va.,    January,  1890. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER 

I. — The  Simple  Sentence 

Elements  of  the  Simple  Sentence 

Position  of  Phrases 

Synthesis  of  the  Simple  Sentence 

II. — The  Complex  Sentence  . 

Clauses  of  the  Complex  Sentence 
Synthesis  of  the  Complex  Sentence 

III. — The  Compound  Sentence 

Connectives      ..... 
Contracted  Compound  Sentences    . 
Synthesis  of  the  Compound  Sentence 
Exercises  in  Composition 

IV. — Transformation  ok  Elements 
Contraction  of  Sentences 
Expansion  of  Sentences  . 
Exercises  in  Composition 

V. — Concord     .... 
Rules  of  Syntax 
Exercises  in  Composition 

VI. — Synthesis  of  Sentences  into  a  Paragraph 
Exercises  in  Composition 

VII. — Variety  of  Expression  .... 
Change  of  Structure  .... 
Change  of  Phraseology  .... 
Exercises  in  Composition 


(V 


PAGE 

9 
II 

14 
16 

21 
21 
29 

35 
35 
39 
41 
45 

52 
54 
64 
66 

76 
76 


93 
98 

106 
106 
120 
125 


VI 


COiNTENTS. 


CHAPTER 

VIII.— Style 

Diction    . 

Purity  of  Diction  . 
Propriety  of  Diction 
Precision  of  Diction 
Synonyms 

Simplicity  of  Diction 
Construction  of  Sentences 
Clearness  of  Construction 
Unity  of  Construction     . 
Energy  of  Construction  . 
Harmony  of  Construction 


IX. — Figures  of  Speech 
Simile 
Metaphor 
Personification 
Allegory  . 
Metonymy 
Synecdoche 
Apostrophe 
Vision 
Antithesis 
Epigram  . 
Irony 
Hyperbole 
Litotes     . 

Exercise  in  Figures 
Exercises  in  Composition 


-The  Paragraph 

Construction  of  the  Paragraph 
Exercises  in  the  Paragraph 


XI.— The  Special  Properties  of  Style 

Wit 

Humor    ..... 

Pathos 

Beauty  and  Sublimity 

Extracts  for  the  Critical  Study  of  Style 


CONTENTS.  Vii 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XII. — The  Paraphrase 297 

Selections  for  Paraphrase         ......  299 

XIII. — Prose  Composition 309 

Discourses         .........  309 

/,  Letters 312 

Essays      ..........  318 

Treatises.         .........  318 

Travels    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .319 

History    ..........  319 

Fiction    ..........  322 

News        ..........  323 

Exercise  in  Paraphrase  and  Composition         .         .         .  325 

XIV. — Prosody  and  Versification 336 

Meter 336 

Rhyme    ..........  347 

Stanza      ;.........  350 

Poetical  Pauses         ........  367 

XV.— Poetry 368 

-   Lyric  ...........  369 

Elegiac    ..........  370 

Pastoral  ..........  370 

Didactic  ..........  371 

Satirical  ..........  372 

Epic 372 

Dramatic          .........  374 

XVI. — Capitals  and  Punctuation 375 


COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 


CHAPTER   I. 


THE    SIMPLE    SENTENCE.  . 


Composition  is  the  art  of  combining  ideas,  or  thoughts, 
and  arranging  them  in  order.  As  an  art,  it  is  regulated  by 
the  principles  of  Rhetoric. 

Rhetoric,  derived  from  a  Greek  verb  meaning  to  speak, 
is  the  science  that  discusses  the  means  whereby  thoughts 
may  be  forcibly  presented.  Aristotle,  the  oldest  writer  on 
the  subject,  defines  rhetoric  as  "the  faculty  of  perceiving 
all  the  possible  means  of  persuasion  on  every  subject."  As 
its  etymology  suggests,  it  was  originally  limited  to  spoken 
discourse ;  but  since  the  principles  which  apply  to  spoken 
discourse  apply  with  equal  force  to  written  discourse,  the 
meaning  of  the  term  has  been  so  extended  as  to  include 
both  written  and  spoken  composition. 

Composition  and  Style. — The  two  important  divisions 
of  Rhetoric  are  Composition  and  Style. 

A  Simple  Sentence  consists  of  one  independent  prop- 
osition. It  contains  only  one  subject  and  one  predicate ; 
but  an  indefinite  number  of  words  and  phrases  may  be 
brought  into  the  sentence,  and  grouped  about  the  subject 
and  the  predicate  as  modifiers  of  these  elements. 

(9) 


lO  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC. 

The  subject  and  the  predicate  can  be  enlarged  only  by 
the  addition  of  words  and  phrases ;  for,  if  another  proposi- 
tion, either  subordinate  or  independent,  be  introduced,  the 
sentence  is  no  longer  simple,  but  complex  or  compound, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  proposition  introduced.  The 
following  examples  will  severally  illustrate  the  simple,  the 
complex,  and  the  compound  sentence: 

After  reading  the  papers,  I  returned  them. 

Since  this  sentence  contains  but  one  subject  and  one 
predicate,  it  is  restricted  to  a  single  proposition,  and  is, 
therefore,  simple. 

When  I  had  read  the  papers,  I  returned  them. 

What  was  expressed  in  the  first  sentence  by  means  of  the 
phrase  "after  reading  the  papers,"  is  in  the  second  sentence 
expressed  by  means  of  the  clause  ' '  when  I  had  read  the 
papers."  This  clause  contains  a  subject  and  a  predicate, 
but,  for  completeness  of  meaning,  depends  on  some  word 
in  the  succeeding  clause.  Such  clauses  are  subordinate,  or 
dependent,  and  sentences  containing  such  clauses  arc  com- 
plex. 

I  read  the  papers,  and  I  returned  them. 

In  the  third  sentence  we  use  neither  the  phrase  nor  the 
dependent  clause,  but  express  the  ideas  by  means  of  in- 
dependent propositions.      Such  a  sentence  is  compoiiml. 

In  its  simplest  form,  the  simple  sentence  consists  of  sub- 
ject and  predicate,  without  adjuncts.  The  first  of  the  fol- 
lowing sentences  is  in  its  simplest  form.  Observe  how  the 
subject  and  the  predicate  are  enlarged,  in  the  three  sen- 
tences following,  by  the  gradual  addition  of  certain  particu- 
hus.      Thus: 


THE  SIMPLE  SENTENCE. 


II 


John 
Merry  John 
Merry  John,  the  blacksmith's  son, 
Merry  John,    son    of   the   black- 
smith of  White  Plains, 


ran. 

ran  quickly. 

ran  quickly  down  the  hill, 
ran  quickly  down  the  hill  to  bring 
a  bucket  of  water. 


We  see,  therefore,  that,  by  a  skillful  introduction  of 
words  and  phrases,  even  the  simple  sentence  may  be  long 
and  difficult,  and  may  express  much. 

W^ords  introduced  as  modifiers  are : 

(i)  Adjectives;  as,  ''Honest  men  can  speak  for  them- 
selves." 

(2)  Adverbs;  as,  " The  house  fell  .y?/<^(^^7z/j/. " 

(3)  Nouns  used  as  complements;  as,  "He  is  considered 
a  good  viaii^ 

(4)  Nouns  used  as  adjective  modifiers — either  possessive 
or  explanatory;  as,  "Thy  father's  virtue  is  not  thine"; 
"Mr.  Barret,  a  surgeon,  was  writing  a  history  of  Bristol." 

(5)  Words  used  independently;  as,  "(9,  sir,  hear  me!" 

Direction. — Write  sentences  illustrating  all  the  points  made  above. 

Phrases  introduced  as  modifiers  may  be  preposi- 
tional, infinitive,  participial,  or  adjectival. 

Prepositional  Phrase. — A  preposition  and  its  object, 
forming  a  prepositional  phrase,  may  be  brought  into  the 
sentence  and  perform  the  office  of: 

(i)  An  adjective  modifier;  as,  "The  clouds  of  smoke  will 
disappear." 

(2)   An  adverb  modifier;  as,   "They  walked  beyond  as/' 

Without  its  preposition  the  noun  may  be  used  adverbi- 
ally and  become: 

(i)   An  indirect  object;  as,   ''G'wq  John  the  book";    or 

(2)  A  noun  of  measure,  direction,  or  time;  as,  "He  sat 
an  hour." 


12  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC. 

An  infinitive  phrase,  "to"  with  its  verb,  may  be 
brought  into  the  sentence,  and  become: 

(i)   A  subject;  as,   ''To  forget  an  injury  is  noble." 

(2)  A  complement;  as,  "The  duty  is  to  act'';  "He  told 
me  to  go  ho)ne'';   "The  doctor  bade  the  man  {to)  ivalk." 

(3)  An  adjective  modifier;  as,  "Music  hath  charms  to 
soothe  the  savage  breast." 

(4)  An  adverb  modifier;  as,   "Aim  to  speak  well." 

(5)  An  explanatory  modifier;  as,  "This  law,  to  love,  is 
recognized  by  Christians." 

(6)  An  independent  phrase ;  as,  "  To  speak  plainly,  your 
habits  are  your  worst  enemies." 

(7)  It  may  be  the  principal  term  of  another  phrase ;  a-s, 
"They  are  about  to  fall.'' 

A  participle  or  a  participial  phrase  may  be  brought 
into  the  sentence  and  become : 

(i)  A  subject;  as,  ''Dying  for  a  principle  is  a  high  de- 
gree of  virtue." 

(2)  An  adjective  modifier;  as,  "Flowers,  withering,  soon 
perish";  "The  Knight,  having  called  the  squire  aloud,  dis- 
mounted." 

(3)  A  complement;  as,  "Hope  appeared  smiling";  "I 
saw  a  man  laughing." 

(4)  The  principal  word  of  a  prepositional  phrase;  as, 
"By  taking  pains,  you  \\\\\  succeed." 

(5)  The  principal  word  in  a  phrase  used  as  a  comple- 
ment; as,   "Excuse  \wy  answering  your  question." 

(6)  It  may  be  independent;  as,  "Confessing  the  truth, 
there  were  many  bad  traits  in  the  character  of  Queen  Eliz- 
abeth." 

The  adjective  phrase  is  one  introduced  by  a  word 
used   regularly  as  an  adjective.      Thus:    "He  was  a  man 


THE  SIMPLE  SENTENCE.  1 3 

generous  in  all  tilings  ";  "His  garden,  gay  witJi  flozvers,  was 
open  to  us." 

The  absolute  phrase  is  without  grammatical  depend- 
ence on  any  other  word.  It  may  consist  of  the  name  of  a 
person  or  thing  spoken  of  in  exclamatory  phrases ;  as,  '' 0 
their  dreaelfnl  endT'  or  of  a  noun  with  a  limiting  adjective 
or  participle;  as,  "The  storm  having  ceased,  we  departed"; 
or  of  the  name  of  the  person  or  thing  addressed,  modified 
by  words  or  phrases;  as,  "O,  pardon  me,  thoiL  bleeding 
piece  of  earths 

Direction. — Write  sentences  illustrating  all  the  points  made  above. 

EXERCISE   I. 

Direction. — Supply  appropriate  subjects,  so  as  to  make  complete  simple  sen- 
tences.    Thus : 

tends  his  flock.      The  shcfherd  tends  his  flock. 

commends  the  scholar. 

overcomes  difficulties. 

promotes  health. 

make  long  voyages. 

buries  its  eggs  in  the  sand. 

Hes  between  the  tropics. 

will  prove  a  source  of  happiness. 

yields  a  costly  fur. 

sounds  the  charge. 

walks  rapidly  over  the  hot  desert. 


Direction. — Supply  appropriate  predicates,  so  as  to  make  complete  simple 
sentences.     Thus : 

King  John  of  France King  John  of  France  was  led  in 

triumph  through  the  streets  of  London. 

A  child  eighteen  months  old 

The  President  of  the  United  States 

Two  honest  tradesmen 

In  the  flower  of  youth  and  beauty,  she 


14  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Montcalm,  fighting  gallantly  at  the  head  of  the  French 

Patrick  Henry,  styled  by  his  contemporaries  the  "Orator  of  Nat- 
ure,"      

Tea  and  coffee,  for  a  long  time  used  only  as  luxuries, 

The  gleaming  rushes 

After  walking  at  a  brisk  pace  for  half  an  hour,  he 

General  Arnold,  commander  of  West  Point, * 

Position  of  Phrases. 

As  a  simple  sentence  may  consist  of  an  indefinite  number 
of  words  and  phrases,  a  variety  of  changes  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  its  parts  may  be  made.  Thus  the  sentence,  ' '  On 
a  pleasant  spring  morning,  with  my  little  curious  friend 
beside  me,  I  stood  on  the  beach  opposite  the  promontory," 
may  be  arranged  in  several  ways;  as. 

With  my  little  curious  friend  beside  me,  I  stood,  on  a  pleasant 
spring  morning,  on  the  beach  opposite  the  promontory. 

I  stood  on  the  beach  opposite  the  promontory,  with  my  little  curi- 
ous friend  beside  me,  on  a  pleasant  spring  morning. 

On  a  pleasant  spring  morning,  I  stood  on  the  beach  opposite  the 
promontory,  with  my  little  curious  friend  beside  me. 

The  particular  position  that  a  phrase  should  occupy 
will  generally  depend  on  the  sense  intended;  therefore, 
phrases  should  usually  be  placed  beside  the  parts  of  the 
sentence  they  are  designed  to  modify.  This  is  especially 
true  of  all  phrases  used  as  adjective  elements,  but  phrases 
used  adverbially  may  be  placed  in  almost  an}-  part  of  the 
sentence.  The  taste  of  the  writer  must  determine  which 
is  the  best  place.  Shoukl  the  sentence  contain  a  number 
of  phrases,  they  should  not  be  grouped  together  at  the  be- 


■••■Tu  THE  Teachkk. — Tlie  pupil  should  liore  ho  taught  the  punctuation  of 
simple  sentences.  The  rules  for  such  punctuation,  together  with  examples  illus- 
trating the  rules,  will  be  found  in  Chapter  XVI. 


THE  SIMPLE  SENTENCE. 


15 


ginning,  at  the  end,  or  in  the  middle,  but  they  should  be 
distributed  in  such  a  way  that  the  sentence  shall  be  agree- 
able to  the  ear.  For  example,  in  the  sentence,  "They 
were  imprisoned  for  three  months  in  the  town  of  Clinch 
in  an  old  stone  house,  dark  and  damp,  and  altogether  bar- 
ren of  human  comforts,"  the  phrases  are  all  placed  together 
after  the  verb,  and  the  effect  is  unpleasant.  By  distribut- 
ing the  phrases,  the  statement  may  be  more  neatly  ex- 
pressed ;  thus. 

For  three  months,  they  were  imprisoned  in  tlie  town  of  Chnch  in 
an  old  stone  house,  etc.;  or,  They  were,  for  three  months,  imprisoned 
in  the  town  of  Chnch  in  an  old  stone  house,  etc. 

Clearness  of  meaning  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  and 
often  depends  upon  the  arrangement  of  phrases.  Hence  it 
is  well  in  constructing  sentences  to  try  several  arrange- 
ments and  carefully  avoid  those  that  admit  the  least  doubt 
as  to  the  meaning. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  several  arrangements  of  a 
simple  sentence  present  the  meaning  with  equal  clearness; 
yet  there  may  be  still  a  choice  of  structure.  It  is  not 
enough  that  we  express  ourselves  so  as  to  be  clearly  un- 
derstood ;  we  should  endeavor  to  arrange  our  sentences 
neatly,  elegantly,  and  harmoniously.  Hence,  when  the 
several  varieties  of  structure  have  been  made,  ask  yourself 
the  following  questions:  Which  construction  is  clearest? 
Which  is  neatest"?     Which  is  most  harmonious? 

EXERCISE  11. 

Direction. — Change  the  position  of  the  words  and  phrases  in  the  following 
sentences  in  four  ways,  without  altering  the  meaning: 

1.  Dogs,  in  their  love  for  man,  play  a  part  in  nearly  every  tragedy. 

2.  The  sea  for  many  hundred  miles  rolls  and  flashes  over  a  shallow 
bottom. 


1 6  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

3.  In  the  far  East,  tiny  humming-birds  are  eagerly  sought  by  the 
ladies  of  high  rank. 

4.  You  have  but  to  peep,  in  any  lane,  or  brake,  in  spring,  into  a 
bird's  nest  to  see  a  number  of  mysterious  spheres  lying  cozily  in  their 
mossy  couch. 

5.  Directly  in  front  of  the  tent,  and  at  no  great  distance  from  it,  a 
thick  net-work  of  vines  stretched  between  two  trees. 

6.  The  sun  has  thrown  its  shadow  upon  the  pewter  dial  two  hours 
beyond  the  meridian  time. 

7.  Nations,  therefore,  have  fittingly  rejoiced  in  every  century  since 
the  creation,  in  the  joyfulness  of  harvest. 

8.  Then,  standing  in  the  center  of  his  court,  in  the  great  hall  of 
Hatfield  House,  the  Lord  of  Misrule  bade  his  herald  declare  him 
Lord  Supreme  from  Christmas  Eve  to  Twelfth  Night. 

9.  Alone,  in  unuttered  sympathy,  the  two  ascended  the  steps  of  the 
sacred  temple  to  approach  the  shrine. 

10.  With  a  merry  heart  and  a  glad  countenance,  he  eagerly  en- 
tered his  mother's  room  early  in  the  morning  before  breakfast. 

Synthesis  of  Simple  Sentences. 

Synthesis  is  the  process  of  combining  separate  state- 
ments into  a  single  sentence.    The  following  is  the  method  : 

1.  An  Italian  mariner  made  his  appearance  at  various 
courts. 

2.  He  made  his  appearance  successively. 
Separate    J  3-  These  courts  were  in  the  south  and  west  of  Europe. 

Statements.  \  4.  He  was  a  citizen  of  (]enoa. 

5.  Genoa  was  a  little  republic. 

6.  He  made  his  appearance  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
(^  7.  It  w.is  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  century. 

Cotnbinecf. — In  the  last  quarter  of  the  fifteenth  century,  an  Italian 
mariner,  a  citizen  of  the  little  republic  of  ( icnoa,  made  his  appearance 
successively  at  various  courts  in  the  south  and  west  of  Europe.* 


*  Note. — It  will  be  observed  that  in  the  comhined  sentence  all  the  elements 
contained  in  each  of  tlie  separate  statements  are  woven  together. 
Statenunt  i   is  the  principal  proposition,  or  skeleton  sentence. 


THE  SIMPLE  SENTENCE. 


i; 


Rhetorical  analysis,  the  opposite  of  synthesis,  is  the 
separation  of  a  single  sentence  into  the  different  statements 
implied  in  it.     The  following  illustrates  the  method : 

The  Natural  Bridge,  over  Cedar  Creek,  is  a  rocky  mass  spanning 
the  bed  of  the  stream  at  a  height  of  215  feet. 

The  Natural  Bridge  is  a  rocky  mass. 
It  is  over  Cedar  Creek. 
It  spans  the  bed  of  the  stream. 
It  spans  it  at  a  height  of  215  feet. 


Analysis. 


EXERCISE  III. 

Direction. — Combine  each  of  the  following  groups  of  statements  into  a  sim- 
ple sentence.  Try  the  sentence  in  various  orders,  and  tell  which  construction 
you  prefer,  and  why.     Attend  carefully  to  the  punctuation  : 

1.  A  favorite  diversion  was  hunting.  A  favorite  diversion  was 
hawking.  These  were  diversions  of  the  Middle  ^es.  They  occurred 
at  intervals.     They  occurred  during  the  intervals  of  war. 

2.  Former  kings  possessed  large  forests.  These  forests  were  in  all 
parts  of  England.  The  Conqueror  was  not  content  with  these  forests. 
He  resolved  to  make  a  new  forest.  He  decided  to  make  it  near  Win- 
chester.    Winchester  was  the  usual  place  of  his  residence. 

3.  Alice  Cary  and  her  sister  Phoebe  planted  the  tree.  They  planted 
it  in  their  youth.  It  is  the  large,  beautiful  sycamore.  It  is  seen  in 
passing  along  the  Hamilton  turnpike.  It  is  seen  in  passing  from  Col- 
lege Hill  to  Mt.  Pleasant.     These  places  are  in  Ohio. 

4.  It  was  an  idle  question.  It  was  put  to  a  railway  acquaintance. 
A  name  was  spoken.     It  was  spoken  in  a  moment.     The  landlady's 


Statement  2  contributes  the  single  word  "successively." 

Statement  3  furnishes  the  adjective  phrase  "  in  the  south  and  west  of  Europe." 

Statement  4  adds  the  phrase  "  a  citizen  of  Genoa";  this  phrase  is  put  in  appo- 
sition with  the  subject. 

Statement  5  adds  the  words  "little  republic." 

Statements  6  and  7,  combined,  appear  in  the  form  of  an  adverbial  phrase,  "  in 
the  last  quarter  of  the  fifteenth  century,"  which  serves  as  a  modifier  of  the  predi- 
cate. 

Rhet.--2. 


l8  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

name  was  spoken.     She  was  the  best  landlady  in  all  Germany.     She 
was  the  dearest  in  all  Germany.    She  was  the  joUiest  in  all  Germany. 

5.  The  youth  was  Narcissus.  He  was  hunting  one  day.  He  was 
hunting  in  the  forest.  He  chanced  to  see  the  fountain.  The  fountain 
was  flashing.     It  was  flashing  beneath  a  stray  sunbeam. 

6.  The  daylight  faded  away.  The  moonbeams  crept  down.  They 
crept  into  the  little  glade.  They  came  to  bear  him  company.  They 
came  to  be  with  him  in  his  faithful  watch.  They  came  to  stay  till 
morning. 

7.  The  prince  was  a  dissolute  young  man.  He  was  a  debauched 
young  man.  He  was  eighteen  years  of  age.  He  bore  no  love  to  the 
English.  He  declared  his  intention.  He  intended  to  yoke  the  En- 
glish to  the  plow.  He  would  yoke  them  like  o.xen.  He  would  do  this 
on  coming  to  the  throne. 

8.  It  was  a  monster  of  a  bee.  It  had  been  wandering  overhead. 
It  was  now  among  the  leaves.  It  was  now  flashing  through  the  strips 
of  sunshine.  It  was  now  lost  in  the  dark  shade.  It  linally  appeared 
to  be  settling.    It  appeared  to  be  settling  on  the  eyelid  of  David  Swan. 

9.  Their  two  faces  were  grim.  Their  two  faces  were  wrinkled.  They 
were  ghastly  with  guilt  and  fear.  Their  faces  bent  over  their  victim. 
They  looked  horrible.  Their  looks  might  have  caused  them  tu  be 
mistaken  for  fiends. 

10.  We  should  suit  our  behavior  to  men.  We  should  suit  it  to  the 
several  degrees  of  men.  Of  these  degrees,  there  are  three.  We  should 
suit  our  behavior  to  our  superiors.  We  should  suit  it  to  our  equals. 
We  should  suit  it  to  those  below  us.  This  is  the  principal  point  of 
good  breeding. 

11.  Ben  was  still  stunned  by  the  change.  The  change  was  sudden. 
It  was  terrible.  The  change  was  in  his  affairs.  Ben  sat  gazing  out 
of  the  window.  It  was  the  window  of  the  coach.  He  hoped  to  see 
some  phenomenon.  He  wished  the  phenomenon  to  be  monstrous. 
He  hoped  to  see  it  in  the  street.  He  wished  it  to  prove  the  awful 
state  to  be  only  a  dream.  The  awful  state  of  his  affairs  inspired  this 
hope. 

12.  The  glow  showed  him  a  figure.  The  figure  was  shown  by  the 
fire's  glow.  It  was  a  wood  fire.  The  glow  was  a  dull  red.  The  fig- 
ure was  seated.  It  had  its  back  to  him.  The  figure  sat  on  the  hearth. 
It  bent  over  the  light.     The  light  was  fitful. 

13.  To  come  alone  was  to  remind  him.  To  come  thus  with  the 
chaise  was  to  remind  Sampson  I5rass.      It  was  for  Kit  to  come  in  this 


THE  SIMPLE  SENTENCE. 


19 


way.  Brass  was  reminded  of  some  mission.  The  mission  called  Mr. 
Swiveller  to  some  place.  It  might  be  to  Peckham  Rye  again.  It 
would  surely  be  to  some  distant  place.  From  this  distant  place  he 
could  not  be  expected  to  return  for  two  or  three  hours.  It  might 
be  for  a  much  longer  period.  This  longer  stay  was  altogether  prob- 
able. 

14.  The  water  sports  with  its  freight.  The  water  is  resistless.  The 
freight  is  ghastly.  The  water  bruises  its  freight  against  the  slimy  piles. 
It  hides  it  in  mud.  It  hides  it  in  long  grass.  The  grass  is  rank.  The 
water  drags  its  freight  heavily.  It  drags  it  over  rough  stones.  It  drags 
it  over  gravel.  It  feigns  to  yield  it  to  its  own  element.  It  lures  it  away. 
It  flings  it  at  last  on  a  swamp.  The  swamp  is  a  dismal  place.  The 
water  flings  its  freight  to  remain  there  forever. 

15.  Miriam  bade  farev^ell  to  this  nest.  It  was  a  dove's  nest.  She 
bade  farewell  from  the  threshold.  She  did  this  with  a  long  regard. 
She  turned  from  this  one  little  nook.  It  was  a  nook  of  pure  thoughts. 
It  was  a  nook  of  innocent  enthusiasms.  She  had  now  stained  it  with 
her  dark  trouble. 

16.  The  Niobe  of  Nations  is  made  to  bewail.  She  is  made  to  be- 
wail anew.  She  bewails  with  sincerity.  This  is  doubtless.  She  is 
made  to  bewail  the  loss  of  part  of  her  population.  It  is  a  large  part. 
She  derives  this  part  from  other  lands.  This  part  affords  her  prosper- 
ity. It  is  a  remnant  of  prosperity.  She  still  enjoys  this  remnant.  She 
is  made  to  bewail  this  loss  on  the  approach  of  summer. 

17.  The  Indian  wife  sailed  with  her  husband  for  England.  She 
sailed  in  1616.  She  had  been  instructed  in  the  English  language. 
She  bore  an  English  name.  She  was  "the  first  Christian  of  her  na- 
tion." 

18.  The  first  band  of  emigrants  sailed  from  England,  November, 
1633.  This  band  consisted  of  about  two  hundred  gentlemen.  They 
possessed  considerable  rank  and  fortune.  They  professed  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith.  They  had  with  them  a  number  of  inferior  adherents. 
They  sailed  in  a  vessel  called  The  A7-k  and  the  Dove.  The  band 
was  under  the  command  of  Leonard  Calvert. 

19.  Patrick  Henry  electrified  the  minds  of  his  colleagues.  He  did 
this  by  his  brilliant  displays  of  argument  and  eloquence.  This  was  in 
March,  1775.  He  had  electrified  them  before.  His  colleagues  were 
hesitating  and  reluctant.  They  hesitated  to  enter  upon  a  contest  with 
the  mother-country.  This  occurred  in  the  Virginia  Convention.  Pat- 
rick Henry  was  styled  by  his  contemporaries  the  "Orator  of  Nature." 


20  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

20.  Edward  Plantagenet  was  the  eldest  son  of  King  Edward  III. 
He  was  born  at  Woodstock,  in  1330.  He  was  commonly  called  the 
Black  Prince.  He  was  called  the  Black  Prince  from  the  color  of  his 
armor.  The  color  of  the  armor  was  specially  chosen.  It  set  off  the 
fairness  uf  his  skin  and  hair. 

EXERCISE  IV. 
Direction. — Analyze  the  following  simple  sentences: 

1.  Indian  Territory  is  a  large  tract  originally  set  apart  for  Indian 
tribes  removed  from  their  homes  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

2.  The  South  Atlantic  States  were  the  scene  of  stirring  events  in  the 
Revolutionary  War,  being  at  one  time  the  chief  battle-ground. 

3.  Its  mountain-ranges,  clad  in  forests,  contain  great  mineral  wealth, 
to  some  extent  developed. 

4.  Indigo  is  a  blue  dye  obtained  from  the  leaves  of  several  species 
of  plants  largely  cultivated  throughout  the  warm  regions  of  Asia. 

5.  In  1520,  Magellan  entered  the  Pacific  by  passing  through  the 
strait  since  called  by  his  name. 

6.  At  the  dawn  of  day,  on  the  12th  of  October,  1492,  Columbus  saw 
before  him  a  level  island,  several  leagues  in  extent,  and  covered  with 
trees  like  a  continuous  orchard. 

7.  The  Spaniards  found  the  native  tribes,  everywhere  on  the  route, 
in  a  state  of  cultivation  beyond  that  of  nomadic  hordes,  with  fixed 
places  of  abode  and  a  liberal  subsistence  from  the  tillage  of  their  lands. 

8.  The  national  vanity  of  the  English,  highly  stimulated  by  the 
victory  of  Agincourt,  and  the  short-lived  conquest  of  French  territory, 
was  now  exasperated  by  the  reverses  of  the  war  in  France. 

9.  According  to  a  tradition  in  our  family,  Henry  Hudson,  the  great 
navigator,  on  being  blessed  with  a  view  of  the  enchanting  island  of 
Manhattan,  exhibited,  for  the  first  and  only  time  in  his  life,  strong 
symptoms  of  astonishment  and  admiration. 

10.  At  daybreak  the  next  morning,  the  red  ensign,  the  well-known 
signal  for  battle,  was  seen  flying  over  Varro's  headquarters,  just  in 
front  of  the  main  army  then  forming  in  order  of  battle  on  the  right 
bnnk  of  the  river. 


CHAPTER  II. 


THE    COMPLEX    SENTENCE. 


A  Complex  Sentence  consists  of  one  independent,  or 
principal,  proposition,  and  one  or  more  subordinate  propo- 
sitions, or  clauses. 

Every  clause  contains  a  subject  and  a  predicate,  and  every 
proposition  contains  a  subject  and  a  predicate,  hence,  inde- 
pendent propositions  are  likewise  clauses;  but,  as  subordi- 
nate propositions  perform  merely  the  functions  of  adjectives, 
or  adverbs,  or  nouns,  we  shall  use  the  word  "clause"  with 
special  reference  to  those  dependent,  or  subordinate,  prop- 
ositions, introduced  by  connectives. 

Clauses. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  clauses  :  (i)  The  adjective  clause ; 
(2)  The  adverbial  clause ;  (3)  The  substantive,  or  noun, 
clause. 

I.  An  adjective  clause  performs  the  office  of  an  ad- 
jective. It  may  modify  any  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  princi- 
pal proposition.  It  is  generally  joined  to  the  principal 
statement  by  a  relative  pronoun  or  by  a  conjunctive  adverb, 
as  "where,"  "when,"  "why";  thus. 

He  prayed  for  those  whose  love  had  been  his  shield. 

"Whose  love  had  been  his  shield  "  is  an  adjective  clause, 
connected  with  the  principal  statement,  "he  prayed  for 
those,"  by  means  of  the  relative   "whose."     The  clause 

modifies  the  pronoun  "those." 

(21) 


22  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

He  came  to  a  garden  where  rich  roses  bloomed. 

"Where  rich  roses  bloomed"  is  an  adjective  clause,  in- 
troduced by  the  conjunctive  adverb  "where,"  and  modify- 
ing the  noun  "garden." 

This  was  a  time  wJioi  brave  Jicarts  irembled. 

"When  brave  hearts  trembled"  is  an  adjective  clause, 
introduced  by  the  conjunctive  adverb  "when,"  and  modi- 
fying the  noun  "time." 

The  hate  ivJiich  we  all  bear  ivitJi  tJie  most  Christian  pa- 
tience, is  the  hate  of  those  zuho  oivy  us. 

"Which  we  all  bear,"  etc.,  is  an  adjective  clause  modify- 
ing the  noun  "hate."  "Who  envy  us"  is  an  adjective 
clause  modifying  the  pronoun  "those." 

Adjective  clauses  may  be  classified  as  restrictive  and  non- 
restrictive.  A  restrictive  clause  limits  the  application,  or 
the  meaning,  of  the  word  it  modifies;  as,  "The  person 
who  stole  my  money  is  in  this  company."  A  non-restrictive 
clause  does  not  so  limit,  or  restrict,  the  application  of  the 
word  it  modifies;  thus,  "Their  dark  faces  were  set  off  by 
cloth  caps,  which  ivere  draivn  dozun  aslant  over  their  brows. "  * 

The  relative  pronoun  introducing  an  adjective  clause  not 
restrictive,  should  be  "who"  or  "which."  Example:  "I 
heard  this  from  the  commander,  who  (and  he)  heard  it 
from  the  aid  that  carried  the  message." 

The  relative  introducing  a  restrictive  clause  should  be 
"that,"  if  euphony  allows. 

Abbott  says,   "'Who,'   'which,'  etc.,  introduce  a  new 


*NoTE. — For  fuller  explanation  of  restrictive  and  non-restrictive  clauses,  the 
pupil  is  referred  to  ".Adjective  Clauses"  under  the  rules  for  the  punctuation  of 
complex  sentences,  Chapter  XVI. 


THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE.  2$ 

fact  about  the  antecedent,  whereas  'that'  introduces  some- 
thing without  which  the  antecedent  is  incomplete  or  unde- 
fined." 

The  principal  cases  where  "who"  and  "which"  are 
used,  instead  of  "that,"  to  introduce  restrictive  clauses  are : 

1.  If  the  antecedent  is  quaHfied  by  the  adjective  "that," 
the  relative  pronoun  must  not  be  "that." 

Notice  how  disagreeable  the  repetition  of  "that"  in  the 
sentence,  ' '  Tliat  cloak  tJiat  I  wore  to-day  is  not  that  that 
you  admire." 

2.  Near  "that"  used  as  a  conjunction  it  is  sometimes 
unadvisable  to  use  ' '  that "  as  a  relative.  Example :  ' '  There 
is  the  horse  that  I  said  that  I  regretted  that  I  had  bought." 

3.  To  avoid  ending  a  sentence  with  a  preposition,  it  is 
often  necessary  to  place  the  preposition  before  the  relative ; 
now,  since  "that"  can  not  be  preceded  by  a  preposition, 
"whom"  or  "which"  must  in  such  cases  be  used  instead. 
Example:  "This  is  the  fence  that  I  fell  over.''  This  would 
be  more  agreeably  expressed  thus :  "  This  is  the  fence  over 
which  I  fell." 

4.  After  pronominal  adjectives  used  as  personal  pronouns, 
"who"  is  preferred  to  "that."  Thus:  "There  are  some, 
others,  several,  many  who  hold,"  etc. 

5.  When  "that"  is  separated  from  its  antecedent  and 
from  its  verb,  and  made  emphatic  by  its  separation,  "who" 
or  "which"  should  be  used  instead.  Abbott  illustrates 
this  objectionable  use  of  "that"  by  the  sentence,  "There 
are  many  persons  that,  though  unscrupulous,  are  commonly 
good-tempered,  and  that,  if  not  strongly  incited  by  self- 
interest,  are  ready  for  the  most  part  to  think  of  the  interest 
of  their  neighbors." 

6.  Since  "that"  applies  to  both  persons  and  things,  its 
use  may  be  somewhat  ambiguous  when  the  antecedent  does 


24  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

not  express  which  is  meant.  This  is  the  case  with  such 
antecedents  as  "one"  and  "all."  Now  "who"  instead  of 
"that"  would  decide  at  once  for  persons;  "which"  for 
things. 

EXERCISE  V. 

Direction. — Point  out  and  classify  the  adjective  clauses  in  the  following  sen- 
tences, and  tell  what  they  modify.  In  cases  where  the  restrictive  relative  "that" 
is  not  used  to  introduce  restrictive  relative  clauses,  state  the  reason  why : 

1.  Behavior  is  a  mirror,  in  which  every  one  shows  his  image. 

2.  Books  that  you  may  carry  to  the  fire  and  hold  readily  in  your 
hand  are  the  most  useful  after  all. 

3.  Tall  are  the  oaks  whose  acorns  drop  into  dark  Auser's  rill. 

4.  Earnest  people,  who  try  to  get  a  reality  out  of  human  existence, 
are  necessarily  absurd  in  the  view  of  the  revelers. 

5.  Hilda's  disappearance,  which  took  place  the  day  before,  was 
known  to  them  through  a  secret  channel. 

6.  We  paint  such  qualities  as  we  do  not  possess. 

7.  The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them. 

8.  The  sorrows  that  wring  our  hearts  often  leave  them  better  fitted 
for  life's  realities. 

9.  Cats  that  wear  gloves  catch  no  mice. 

10.  I  have  something  that  will  suit  you. 

11.  There  are  times  when  every  active  mind  feels  itself  above  any 
and  all  human  books. 

12.  Thrice  is  he  armed  that  hath  his  quarrel  just. 

13.  Congress,  which  was  in  session  since  last  December,  has  ad- 
journed. 

14.  They  remind  me  of  that  portion  of  Aladdin's  palace  which  he 
left  unfinished. 

15.  Kenyon  saw  that  she  was  in  one  of  those  moods  of  elevated 
feeling  which  is  really  more  passionate  than  emotions  far  e.xceeding 
it  in  violence. 

16.  This  is  the  mark  beyond  which  I  jumped. 

2.  An  adverbial  clause  is  a  clause  equivalent  to  an  ad- 
verb.    It  modifies  a  verb,   an   adjective,   an  adverb,   or  a 


THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE.  2$ 

participle,  and  denotes  the  various  circumstances  of  place, 
time,  cause,  manner,  degree,  consequence,  etc.  It  is  joined 
to  the  principal  statement  by  a  subordinate  conjunction  or 
by  a  conjunctive  adverb. 

The  subordinate   conjunctions   most  frequently  used  to 
introduce  adverbial  clauses  are: 


if 
than 

since 
as 

though 
whether 

supposing  that 
inasmuch  as 

unless 

for  that  reason 

as  if 

in  order  that 

except 

that 

notwithstanding 

so — as 

because 

lest 

provided  that 

as — as 

for 

The  conjunctive  adverbs  used  to  introduce  adverbial 
clauses  are: 

when  as  ere  after 

while  until  before  since 

If  all  be  ivell,  we  shall  leave  home  in  a  week. 

"  If  all  be  well"  is  an  adverbial  clause,  expressing  con- 
dition, introduced  by  the  subordinate  conjunction  "if,"  and 
modifying  the  principal  predicate  ' '  shall  leave  home  in  a 
week." 

Expect  nothing,  lest  y on  be  disappointed. 

"Lest  you  be  disappointed"  is  an  adverbial  clause  ex- 
pressing result,  introduced  by  the  subordinate  conjunction 
"lest." 

Corruption  wins  not  more  tha^i  honesty  receives. 

"Than  honesty  receives"  is  an  adverbial  clause  of  com- 
parison, introduced  by  the  subordinate  conjunction  "than." 

We  listened  ivJiile  he  played. 

"While  he  played"  is  an  adverbial  clause  of  time,  intro 

Rhet.— 3. 


26  COMPOSITION  AXn  RHETORIC. 

duced  by  the  conjunctive  adverb  "while,"  and  modifying 
the  principal  predicate  "listened." 

Where  your  treasure  is,  there  will  your  heart  be  also. 

"  Where  your  treasure  is  "  is  an  adverbial  clause  of  place, 
introduced  by  the  conjunctive  adverb  "where." 

EXERCISE  VI. 

Direction. — Classify  the  adverbial  clauses  m  the  following  sentences,  and 
tell  what  they  modify  : 

1.  Though  they  fell,  they  fell  like  stars. 

2.  Halt,  where  thou  art. 

3.  We  only  did  as  we  were  politely  requested. 

4.  Had  he  thy  reason,  would  he  skip  and  play?  . 

5.  We  set  out  early  in  the  morning,  that  we  might  reach  the  sum- 
mit of  the  mountain  by  sunset. 

6.  Stay  a  little,  that  we  may  make  an  end  the  sooner. 

7.  The  colorless  substance  known  in  ancient  times  as  bird-lime,  is 
the  gluten  remaining  after  the  starch  in  flour  has  been  washed  away. 

8.  When  love  begins  to  sicken  and  decay,  it  useth  an  enforced  cer- 
emony. 

9.  It  is  turning  out  a  fine  day,  notwithstanding  the  morning  was 
wet. 

10.  Long  and  curious  speeches  are  as 'fit  for  despatch  as  a  robe  or  a 
mantle,  with  a  long  train,  is  for  a  race. 

11.  He  died  as  he  had  lived. 

12.  He  then  treated  me  with  such  unaffected  kindness,  that  I  was 
moved  to  copious  tears. 

13.  When  you  run  into  debt,  you  give  another  power, Qi^er  your  own 
liberty. 

14.  She  saw  not  the  bird,  though  it  whirled  untroubled  by  fear  in 
wanton  circles  about  her  head. 

15.  This  law  is  short,  in  order  that  it  may  be  more  easily  understood 
by  the  ignorant. 

3.  A  substantive,  or  noun,  clause  is  a  clause  equiv^a- 
lent  to  a  noun.     A  noun  clause  may  be : 


THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE.  2/ 

(i)  The  subject  of  a  verb;  as,  ''  That  you  have  wronged 
me  doth  appear  in  this." 

(2)  An  attribute  complement,   or  predicate  clause;   as, 
"Plato's  definition  of  man  is,   'Man  is  a  tivo-legged  animal 
rvitJiout  feathers.'  " 

(3)  An  explanatory  modifier — in  apposition;  as,  "Dr. 
Watts'  statement,  that  'Birds  in  their  little  nests  agree,'  is 
very  far  from  being  true." 

(4)  An  object  complement — the  direct  object  of  a  verb 
or  participle;  as,  "Then  the  maiden  clasped  her  hands  and 
prayed  that  saved  she  might  be  ";  "  Having  learned  that  it  was 
best  to  visit  the  ruins  at  midnigiJ,  we  set  out  just  after  dark. " 

(5)  The  object  of  a  preposition,  the  preposition  being 
either  expressed  or  understood;  as,  "Bonaparte  thought 
little  about  ivhat  he  should  do  in  case  of  success.'' 

The  noun  clause  is  generally  introduced  by  an  in- 
terrogative or  relative  adverb,  by  a  subordinate  conjunction, 
or  by  the  interrogative  pronouns  "who  "or  "what."   Thus: 

Who  had  handled  the  gun,  perplexed  the  good  hunter  no 
little. 

"Who  had  handled  the  gun"  is  a  noun  clause,  subject 
of  "perplexed,"  and  is  introduced  by  the  interrogative  pro- 
noun "v/ho. " 

Some  said  that  she  had  7iot  been  seen  for  six  days. 

"That  she  had  not  been,"  etc.,  is  a  noun  clause,  object 
of  "said,"  and  is  introduced  by  the  subordinate  conjunction 
"that." 

When  he  will  come,  is  hidden  from  us. 

"When  he  will  come"  is  a  noun  clause,  subject  of  "is 
hidden,"  and  is  introduced  by  the  interrogative  adverb 
"when." 


28  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


EXERCISE  VII. 

Direction. — Point  out  the  noun  clauses  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell 
what  functions  they  perform  : 

1.  The  whole  force  of  conversation  depends  on  how  much  you  can 
take  for  granted. 

2.  That  fortune  favors  the  brave  is  a  cheering  maxim. 

3.  I  heard  that  a  battle  had  been  fought. 

4.  How  far  I  have  succeeded  is  for  you  to  judge. 

5.  I  will  find  out  whence  you  derive  that  idea. 

6.  We  could  never  understand  why  he  left  so  suddenly. 

7.  IMark,  now,  how  a  plain  tale  shall  put  you  down. 

8.  Tell  me  not  in  mournful  numbers, 
Life  is  but  an  empty  dream. 
9.  Charles  Lamb,  reading  the  epitaphs  in  the  church-yard,  inquired, 
"Where  be  all  the  bad  people  buried?" 

10.  A  sober  melancholy  was  spread  over  my  mind  by  the  idea,  that 
I  had  taken  everlasting  leave  of  an  old  and  agreeable  companion. 

11.  We  listened  attentively  to  tliem  relating  what  they  had  seen  in 
their  travels. 

12.  I  attempt  to  impress  nothing  upon  you  except,  "Be  careful  still 
of  the  main  chance." 

13.  What  man  dare,  I  dare. 

14.  Know  ye  not  that  a  little  leaven  leaveneth  the  whole  lump? 

15.  What  has  chiefly  perplexed  us,  however,  among  our  friend's  ad- 
ventures, is  the  mode  of  her  release.^ 

EXERCISE  VIII. 

Direction. — Complete  the  following  complex  sentencesby  supplying a(^Vt://w 
clauses; 

1.  The  man shows  prudence. 

2.  France  is  the  country  where 

3.  He  received  the  reward 


*To  THE  Teacher.— The  pupil  should  here  be  taught  those  rules  that  ap- 
ply specially  to  the  punctuation  of  complex  sentences.    See  Chapter  XVI. 


THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE.  2g 

4.  A  metal is  said  to  be  ductile. 

5.  The  house has  been  burnt. 

6.  Botany  is  the  science 

7.  Offices  of  trust  should  be  conferred  only  on  those 

8.  John  Wycliffe died  in  1384. 

Direction. — Complete  the  following  complex  sentences  by  supplying  adverbs 
ial  clauses : 

1.  Be  ready 

2 the  temperature  of  the  ground  seldom  falls  bcv 

low  the  freezing  point. 

3.  The  chase  did  not  end  //// 

4.  Are  friends  as  numerous  in  adversity ? 

5.  When be  not  terrified. 

6.  The  Romans  took  Cincinnatus  from  the  plow,  tliat 

7.  Foul  deeds  will  rise 

8.  He  calls  pleasure  the  bait  of  evil,  because 

Direction. — Complete  the  following  complex  sentences  by  supplying  noun 
clauses: 

I recpiires  no  demonstration. 

2.  His  e.xcuse  for  not  being  present  was 

3.  The  King  could  not  understand 

4.  We  believe 

5 is  right. 

6. is  a  traitor. 

7.  When  the  trial  is  concluded,  we  shall  know 

8.  His  courage  and  success  illustrate  the  proverb 

9.  I  am  more  willing  to  give  ....  than  to  ask 


Synthesis  of  Complex  Sentences. 

Statements  may  be  combined  into  a  complex  sentence  by 
making  one  statement  the  principal  proposition,  and  the 
other  statement,  or  statements,  dependent  upon  it.  The 
dependent  statements  may  be  embodied  in  the  sentence  by 
means  of  modifying  words,  phrases,  or  clauses.     Thus: 


30 


COMPOSITION"  AND  RHETORIC. 


Analysis. 


Egypt  has  recently  annexed  large  territory  on  the  south. 
Separate         ^^  ^^'^  annexation,  it  now  extends  to  the  equator, 
Statni  nts     I    ^S^P^  ^^^^  once  the  most  powerful  country  in  the  world. 
Egypt  was  once  the  most  civilized  country  in  the  world. 
[  Egypt  is  still  the  most  important  division  of  Africa. 

Combined. — Egypt,  once  the  most  powerful  and  civilized  country 
in  the  world,  and  still  the  most  important  division  of  Africa,  has  re^ 
cently  annexed  large  territory  on  the  south,  so  that  it  now  extends  to 
the  equator. 

The  rhetorical  analysis  of  a  complex  sentence  is  ef- 
fected by  separating  the  sentence  into  the  statements  im- 
plied in  it.      Thus: 

"A  caliph,  who  once  reigned  in  Bagdad,  built  a  palace  renowned 
for  beauty  and  magnificence." 

A  caliph  built  a  palace. 

The  caliph  reigned  in  Bagdad. 

The  palace  was  renowned  for  beauty. 

The  palace  was  renowned  for  magnificence. 

Variety  of  Arrangement. — As  in  the  simple  sentence 
variety  of  arrangement  is  obtained  by  changing  the  position 
of  phrases,  so  in  the  complex  sentence  variety  is  effected  by 
changing  the  position  of  phrases  and  clauses.  Thus  the  sen- 
tence, "Into  the  lock  of  the  wicket  which  opened  into  the 
castle  garden,  at  the  dead  hoLir  c^f  midnight,  the  page  put 
the  kc)-,  when  all  was  silent  in  tlic  garden,"  may  be  varied 
thus: 

At  the  dead  hour  of  midnight,  when  all  was  silent  in  the  garden, 
the  page  put  the  key  into  the  lock  of  the  wicket  which  opened  into  the 
castle  garden. 

When  all  was  silent  in  the  garden,  at  the  dead  hour  of  midnight, 
the  page  put  the  key  into  the  lock  of  the  wicket  which  opened  into  the 
castle  garden. 

At  the  dead  hour  of  midnight,  the  page,  when  all  was  silent  in  the 
garden,  put  the  key  into  the  lock  of  the  wicket  which  opened  into  the 
castle  garden. 


THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE.  31 


EXERCISE  IX. 

Direction. — Change  the  position  of  the  clauses  and  phrases  in  the  following 
sentences  in  at  least  three  ways,  without  altering  the  construction  or  destroying 
the  sense.  In  making  the  changes,  bear  in  mind  the  directions  given  for  the 
proper  placing  of  the  clauses  : 

1.  Last  night,  as  I  lay  fettered  in  my  dungeon,  I  heard  a  strange, 
ominous  sound. 

2.  In  prayer  you  will  find  that  a  state  of  mind  is  generated  which 
will  shed  a  holy  influence  over  the  whole  character. 

3.  In  days  long  ago,  when  birds  and  flowers  and  trees  could  talk, 
in  a  country  far  over  the  sea,  there  was  a  beautiful  fountain. 

4.  If  I  were  a  prince,  I  would  hire  or  buy  a  private  literary  teapot, 
in  which  I  would  steep  all  the  leaves  of  new  books  that  promised  well. 

5.  In  the  meantime,  I  talked  on  with  our  boarders,  much  as  usual, 
as  you  may  sec  by  what  I  ha\e  reported. 

6.  As  I  rode  along  the  pleasant  way,  watching  eagerly  for  the  ob- 
ject of  my  journey,  the  rounded  tops  of  the  elms  rose  from  time  to 
time  at  the  roadside. 

7.  However,  before  their  astonished  eyes,  a  little  flower  rose  from 
the  water's  edge,  just  where  their  friend  had  died. 

8.  His  ear,  though  he  did  not  seem  to  listen,  caught  every  word  of 
the  boastful  talk. 

9.  When,  at  last,  the  Wliite  Ship  shot  out  of  the  harbor  of  Barfleur, 
there  was  not  a  sober  seaman  on  board. 

10.  Soon  after,  the  royal  family,  perceiving,  too  late,  that  they  were 
mere  prisoners  in  the  Tuileries,  undertook  to  escape  to  Coblentz, 
where  the  great  body  of  emigrants  resided. 

Directions  for  the  Synthesis  of  Complex  Senten- 
ces.— In  combining  a  number  of  given  statements  into  a 
complex  sentence,  be  guided  by  the  following  directions: 

I.  Consider  carefully  the  nature  of  the  assertion  in  each 
of  the  given  statements  so  as  to  select  the  leading  thought 
for  the  principal  proposition,  and  to  determine  what  con- 
nection the  remaining  statements  have  with  the  leading 
thought. 


32  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

2.  A  clause  should  be  placed  beside  the  statement  con- 
taining the  word  it  modifies,  or  to  which  it  is  grammatically 
related. 

3.  An  adjective  clause  must  follow  the  noun  it  modifies; 
an  adverbial  clause  usually  follows  the  word  it  modifies, 
but  a  clause  denoting  time,  place,  cause,  condition,  conces- 
sion, may  precede  it. 

4.  Words,  phrases,  and  clauses  should  be  placed  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  words  with  which  they  are  grammatically 
connected. 

5.  In  a  long  conditional  .sentence,  where  the  condition  is 
introduced  by  "if"  or  "though,"  place  the  antecedent,  or 
"  if-clau.se, "  first.  Never,  except  when  the  "if-clause"  is 
vny  cvipJiatic,  should  it  be  placed  after  the  consequent. 

EXERCISE  X. 

Direction. — Combine  each  of  the  following  groups  into  ana  complex  sentence: 

1.  The  portrait  of  Parris  is  one  of  the  best  things  in  Mr.  Upham's 
book.  Parris  was  the  minister  of  Salem  viUage.  In  the  household  of 
Parris  three  children  began  their  tricks.  These  children  became  ac- 
cusers and  witnesses.  They  became  such  under  the  assumed  posses- 
sion of  evil  spirits. 

2.  Benvenuto  Cellini  saw  a  salamander  come  out  of  the  fire.  He 
saw  it  in  his  boyhood.  On  seeing  the  salamander,  his  grandfather 
gave  hiir.  a  sound  beating.  He  gave  him  the  beating  forthwith.  By 
means  of  the  beating  Cellini  might  better  remember  the  unique  prod- 
igy.    Cellini  tells  us  this. 

3.  A  youthful  angel  comes  to  us.  At  his  coming,  we  are  as  yet 
small  children.  At  his  coming,  those  two  grown  ladies  ha\  e  not  of- 
fered us  the  choice  of  Hercules.  He  holds  in  his  right  hand  cubes 
like  dice.     In  his  left  hand,  he  holds  spheres  like  marbles. 

4.  William  Pitt  entered  public  life  at  a  very  early  age.  He  was  the 
second  son  of  the  first  Earl  of  Chatham.  William  Pitt  was  the  prime 
minister  of  C.eorge  III.     He  licld  tliis  office  at  an  early  period  of  life. 


THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE.  33 

At  such  period,  most  men  are  just  completing  a  professional  educa- 
tion. 

5.  The  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  was  fought  on  the  17th  of  June.  It 
was  fought  in  the  year  1775.  It  proved  the  bravery  of  the  Americans. 
It  was  followed  by  great  moral  results. 

6.  Some  persons  seem  to  be  preparing  themselves  for  eternity. 
They  seem  to  be  preparing  even  in  this  life.  They  prepare  for  a 
smileless  eternity.  They  look  hopefully  forward  to  this  eternity.  They 
prepare  for  it  by  banishing  all  gayety  from  their  hearts.  They  pre- 
pare for  it  by  banishing  all  joyousness  from  their  countenances. 

7.  The  natives  of  Virginia  seized  on  a  quantity  of  gunpowder.  It 
was  their  first  seizure  of  gunpowder.  They  sowed  it  for  grain.  They 
expected  to  reap  a  plentiful  crop  of  combustion.  They  expected  to 
reap  this  by  the  next  harvest.  They  expected  a  crop  so  plentiful  as  to 
blow  away  the  whole  colony.  The  gunpowder  seized  by  the  natives 
belonged  to  the  English  colony. 

8.  Again  and  again,  the  frigate  appeared  to  be  rushing  on  shoals. 
It  appeared  to  be  rushing  blindly.  The  sea  was  covered  with  foam. 
Destruction  would  have  been  certain.  It  would  likewise  have  been 
sudden.  Then  the  clear  voice  of  the  stranger  was  heard.  The  voice 
warned  them  of  their  danger.    The  voice  incited  them  to  their  duty. 

9.  To  behold  the  peasantry  is  a  pleasing  sight.  To  behold  them 
in  their  best  finery  is  a  pleasing  sight.  Their  ruddy  faces  are  pleasing. 
Their  modest  cheerfulness  is  delightful.  To  see  them  on  a  Sunday 
morning  is  a  pleasing  sight.  To  see  them  thronging  tranquilly  along 
the  green  lanes  to  church  is  most  pleasant.  At  the  time  of  their  going 
the  bell  is  sending  its  sober  melody  across  the  quiet  fields. 

10.  A  clear  river  ran  at  the  foot  of  this  hill.  The  river  was  deep- 
banked.  It  was  bounded  on  one  side  by  a  slip  of  rich  level  meadow. 
On  the  other  side  it  was  bounded  by  a  kind  of  common.  The  com- 
mon was  for  the  village  geese.  The  white  feathers  of  the  geese  lay 
scattered  over  its  green  surface.  They  were  scattered  there  in  the 
summer  season. 

11.  It  is  a  sad  thing  to  be  born  a  sneaking  fellow.  It  is  much  worse 
than  to  inherit  a  hump-back.  It  is  worse  than  to  inherit  a  couple  of 
club-feet.  Looking  upon  such  a  fellow  causes  me  sometimes  a  pecul- 
iar feehng.  The  feeling  tells  of  the  necessity  of  our  loving  the  crip- 
pled souls.  May  I  be  allowed  to  use  the  expression  "crippled  souls"? 
We  should  love  them  with  a  certain  tenderness.  This  tenderness  we 
need  not  waste  on  noble  natures. 


34  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

12.  You  may  observe  a  toil-worn  man.  He  is  seated  upon  a  hob 
at  the  door.  He  is  without  coat  or  waistcoat.  His  shoulder  is  peeping 
through  the  remnant  of  a  shirt.  The  shoulder  is  red.  Muscular.  Sun- 
burnt. The  man  is  mending  his  shoes.  He  mends  them  with  a  piece 
of  twisted  flax.    The  twisted  flax  is  called  lingel. 

13.  Johnson  showed  roughness  and  violence.  He  showed  these 
qualities  in  society.  They  were  to  be  expected  in  such  a  man.  This 
man's  temper  was  not  naturally  gentle.  It  had  been  long  tried  by  the 
bitterest  calamities.  It  had  been  tried  by  the  want  of  meat.  It  had 
been  long  tried  by  the  want  of  fire  and  clothes.  It  had  been  tried  by 
the  importunity  of  creditors.  It  had  been  tried  by  the  insolence  of 
booksellers.  The  derision  of  fools  had  tried  it.  The  insincerity  of 
patrons  had  tried  it.  It  had  been  tried  by  bread.  Such  bread  is  the 
bitterest  of  all  food.  It  had  been  tried  by  those  stairs — the  most  toil- 
some of  all  paths.  It  had  been  tried  by  deferred  hope.  Deferred  hope 
makes  the  heart  sick. 

EXERCISE  XI. 

Direction. —  Separate  tht,  following  complex  sentences  into  the  different 
statements  contained  in  them  : 

1.  In  the  month  of  July,  when  the  grass  on  the  meadow  was  long, 
many  an  hour  have  I  spent  in  solitary  enjoyment,  watching  the  wavy 
motion  produced  on  its  pliant  surface  by  the  sunny  winds,  or  the  flight 
of  the  cloud  shadows,  like  gigantic  phantoms,  as  they  swept  rapidly 
over  it. 

2.  On  Christmas  day,  1770,  I  was  surprised  by  a  message  from  my 
godfather,  saying  that  he  had  sent  a  man  and  a  horse  to  bring  me  to 
Ashburton,  and  desiring  me  to  set  out  without  delay. 

3.  Straghan  made  such  haste,  that  the  Earl  of  Sutherland,  who  at 
least  pretended  to  have  gathered  together  a  body  of  fifteen  hundred 
men  to  meet  Montrose,  chose  rather  to  join  with  Straghan. 

4.  Of  these,  one  was  a  man  of  six  or  eight  and  fifty,  who  sat  on  a 
chair  near  one  of  the  entrances  of  the  booth,  with  his  hands  folded  on 
the  top  of  his  stick,  and  his  chin  appearing  above  them. 

5.  The  walls  of  Sir  Roger's  great  hall  are  covered  with  the  horns 
of  several  kinds  of  deer  that  he  has  killed  in  the  chase,  which  he  thinks 
the  most  valuable  furniture  of  his  house,  as  they  afford  him  frc(|uent 
topics  of  discourse,  and  show  that  he  has  not  been  idle. 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE    COMPOUND    SENTENCE. 


A  Compound  Sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  inde- 
pendent propositions. 

The  propositions  joined  to  form  a  compound  sentence  are 
of  equal  rank  (co-ordinate).  They  are  usually  connected 
by  means  of  co-ordinate  conjunctions;  but  they  may  stand 
joined  by  their  very  position  in  the  sentence — connected 
without  any  conjunction  expressed. 

Co-ordinate  Conjunctions  are  divided  into  four  classes; 
namely,  copulative,  adversative,  alternative,  illative. 

Copulative  Conjunctions. — When  the  members  of  a 
compound  sentence  are  in  the  same  line  of  thought,  the 
second  adding  to  the  first,  the  third  to  the  second,  and  so 
on,  they  should  be  joined  by  copulative  conjunctions.  The 
following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  copulative  conjunctions: 


and 

as  well  as 

not  only — but 

moreover 

also 

secondly 

partly — partly 

now 

likewise 

first — then 

further 

well 

Adversative  Conjunctions.  —  When  the  propositions 
present  thoughts  in  contrast  or  in  opposition  to  one  another, 
they  should  be  joined  by  adversative  conjunctions.  The 
following  are  the  principal  adversative  conjunctions : 

but  still  yet  however 

but  then  nevertheless  only  notwithstanding 

(  35  ) 


36  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

Alternative  Conjunctions. — When  the  members  pre- 
sent thoughts  in  alternation — expressing  that  which  may  be 
chosen  or  omitted,  they  should  be  joined  by  alternative 
conjunctions.  The  following  are  the  principal  alternative 
conjunctions: 

else  or  either — or  whether — or 

otherwise  nor  neither — nor 

Illative  Conjunctions. —  When  the  members  express 
thoughts  one  of  which  shall  be  an  effect  or  consequence  of 
the  other,  or  an  inference  from  it,  they  should  be  joined 
by  illative  conjunctions.  The  following  are  the  principal 
illative  conjunctions: 


therefore 

whence 

so 

consequently 

wherefore 

thus 

so  that 

accordingly 

hence 

so  then 

then 

for 

The  following  sentences  illustrate  the  various  kinds  of 
connection : 

{CopHlath'e)  All  the  world's  a  stage,  and  all  the  men  and  women 
merely  players. 

(^Adversative)  True,  he  served  the  state  in  his  youth;  biti  then  he 
betrayed  it  in  his  old  age. 

{Alternatwe)  Either  Rome  must  destroy  Carthage,  or  Carthage 
will  be  a  perpetual  threat  to  Rome. 

{///ative)  They  went  away  from  town  abruptly,  so  that  1  iiad  no 
opportunity  of  seeing  them  again. 

Conjunction  Omitted. — Where  the  connection  between 
the  members  is  either  copulative  or  adversative,  the  con- 
junction is  frequently  omitted.  Abbott  sa\'s,  "When  sen- 
tences are  short,  conjunctions  ma}'  be  advantageously  omit- 
ted. The  omission  gives  a  certain  forcible  abruptness;  as, 
'You  say  this;  I  (on  the  other  liand)  deny  it.'"  Other 
illustrations  are : 


THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE. 


37 


Moderate  lamentation  is  the  right  of  the  dead ;  excessiv^e  grief,  the 
enemy  to  the  hving. 

Fools  build  houses;  wise  men  live  in  them. 

Ideas  quickly  fade ;  they  of.en  vanish  quite  out  of  the  understand- 
ing. 

Some  sentences  coDiplcx  in  form  are  equivalent  to  com- 
pound sentences.  When  the  relation  of  the  members  is  cop- 
ulative, the  conjunction  may  be  absorbed  in  a  relative  pro- 
noun or  a  conjunctive  adverb ;  as, 

James  called  for  John,  who  \=aiid  /li]  responded  at  once. 

They  shouted  at  the  dog,  which  \=and  it'\  fled  in  affright. 

We  shall  discuss  this  next  week,  whe^t  \=and  the}i\  we  may  pos^ 
sibly  come  to  a  decision. 

The  monkey  climbed  into  a  tree,  where  \j=and  there']  it  sat  chat- 
tering to  me. 

While  such  constructions  are  frequently  met  with  even 
in  good  authors,  it  is  better  to  avoid  them.  Modern  writers 
seldom  use  relative  pronouns  or  conjunctive  adverbs  to  in- 
troduce independent  propositions ;  and  where  we  find  forms 
passing  into  disuse,  it  is  safer  not  to  employ  them.  The 
following  lines  from  Prof  Bain's  Composition  arid  Rhetoric 
furnish  additional  explanation  on  this  point:  "A  relative 
pronoun  refers  one  clause  to  another  in  the  same  sentence, 
but  rarely  connects  two  successive  sentences.  The  old  En- 
glish usage  of  commencing  a  sentence  with  %vho  for  and  he 
is  now  obsolete  ;  the  reason  being  that  the  relative  expresses 
a  close  connection  between  the  members  joined." 

EXERCISE  XII. 

Direction.— Add  to  each  of  the  following  statements  another  statement,  so 
as  to  make  a  copulative  compound  sentence.     Thus  : 

Return,  and Reiwrn,  and  / -uiill  deal  luith  thee. 


1.  He  turned  from  the  road,  ajid  .... 

2.  His  action  was  not  onlv  considerate,  hut 


38  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

3.  Raleigh  persevered  in  his  attempts  at  colonization     .... 

4.  Steam  is  used  to  propel  great  trains  across  the  continent;  it  is 
also 

Direction. — Add  to  each  of  the  following  statements  another  statement,  so 
as  to  make  an  adversative  compound  sentence.     Thus : 

He  was  often  warned  of  the  danger,  but 

He  was  often  warned  of  the  danger,  but,  for  all  that,  he  persisted  in  his  mad 
attempts. 


1.  Philosophy  makes  US  wiser  men  ; 

2.  It  is  a  hard  case;  still 

3.  Charms  strike  the  sight,  hut 

4.  We  seek  ever  the  light  of  knowledge  .... 

5.  He  was  wise  and  virtuous,  yet 

6.  A  whole  city  on  fire  is  a  spectacle  full  of  horror 


Direction. — Add  to  each  of  the  following  statements  another  statement,  so  as 
to  make  an  alternative  compound  sentence.     Thus  : 

He  must  return  soon He  must  return  soon,  or  his  affairs  will 

go  wrong. 

1.  I  have  no  tears,  else 

2.  Be  generous,  otherwise 

3.  Come  ye  in  peace  here,  or 

4.  We  must  take  the  current  when  it  serves,  or 

5.  Man  does  not  stand  in  awe  of  man,  ;z<5r 

Direction.— .^dd  to  each  of  the  following  statements  another  statement,  so 
as  to  make  an  illative  compound  sentence.     Thus: 

They  are  idle;  consequently They  arc  idle;  consequently 

they  are  discontented. 

1.  This  agreeth  not  well  with  me  ;  "w/u-rt-fore 

2.  Pope  desired  to  e.xcel ;  therefore 

3.  Our  memories  are  most  retentive  in  youth ;  cotisequeutly  .     .     . 

4.  Happiness  does  not  consist  in  self-love;  hefice 

5.  The  Turkish  government  has  possessed  only  two  secrets  for  gov- 
erning— to  drain  and  to  brutify  its  subjects;  hence 

6.  These  barlxirous  tribes  meet  only  to  attack  and  to  destroy  each 
other ;  so  that 

7.  Infancy  con f(jrms  to  nobody  ;  so  that .     ..... 

8.  The  shadow  of  the  earth,  in  every  position,  is  round;     .     .     .     . 

9.  I'ittsburgh  is  the  center  of  a  rich  coal  region;  hetue  .... 


THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE.  39 


Contracted  Compound  Sentences. 

The  members  of  a  compound  sentence  may  have  a  com- 
mon part  in  either  the  subject  or  the  predicate;  in  which 
case  the  sentence  is  said  to  be  contracted.     Thus: 

1.  "The  king  must  reach  Italy,  or  forfeit  his  crown  for- 
ever," is  equivalent  to,  "The  king  must  reach  Italy,  or  the 
king  must  forfeit  his  crown  forever" — (contracted  in  the 
subject;  partly,  also,  in  the  predicate). 

2.  "A  man  of  real  information  becomes  a  center  of  opin- 
ion, and  therefore  of  action  "="  A  man  of  real  informa- 
tion becomes  a  center  of  opinion,  and  therefore  a  man  of 
real  inforjnatio)i  becomes  a  center  of  action" — (contraction 
in  the  subject  and  adjunct,  and  in  the  predicate). 

3.  "I  come  to  bury  Caesar,  not  to  praise  him"  =  "I 
come  to  bury  Caesar;  I  come  not  to  praise  him" — (contrac- 
tion in  the  subject  and  in  the  predicate). 

4.  ' '  Stone  walls  do  not  a  prison  make,  nor  iron  bars  a 
cage  "=:"  Stone  walls  do  not  a  prison  make,  nor  do  iron 
bars  make  a  cage" — (contraction  in  the  predicate). 

5.  "Religious  controversy  sharpens  the  understanding 
by  the  subtlety  and  remoteness  of  the  topics  it  discusses, 
and  embraces  the  will  by  their  infinite  importance  "= 
' '  Religious  controversy  sharpens  the  understanding  by  the 
subtlety  and  remoteness  of  the  topics  it  discusses,  and 
rehgioits  controvei'sy  embraces  the  will  by  the  infinite  im- 
portance of  the  topics  it  discnsses" — (contraction  in  the 
subject,  and  in  adjuncts). 

When  the  predicate  relates  to  two  or  more  subjects  in 
combination,  the  sentence  is  not  contracted  but  simple;  as, 
"  (Four  and  three)  make  seven  "  ;  "  (Tennyson  and  Swin- 
burne) are  the  only  great  living  poets." 


40  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


EXERCISE  XIII. 

Direction. — Contract  the  fullowing  componml  sentences,  and, state  the  nat- 
ure of  the  contraction : 

1.  How  France  was  saved  from  this  humiliation  will  now  be  seen, 
and  how  the  great  alliance  was  preserved  will  now  be  seen. 

2.  The  apple-trees  slope  with  the  hill,  and  in  the  spring  the  apple- 
trees  are  covered  with  a  profusion  of  the  most  beautiful  blossoms,  and 
in  the  autumn  the  apple-trees  are  generally  weighed  down  with  their 
load  of  red  fruit. 

3.  In  a  few  years,  perhaps  next  year,  the  fine  gentleman  will  shut 
up  his  umbrella,  and  the  fine  gentleman  will  give  it  to  his  sister,  and 
the  fine  gentleman  will  fill  his  hand  with  a  crab-tree  cudgel  instead  of 
the  umbrella. 

4.  In  the  strength  and  ardor  of  youth,  Rome  sustained  the  storms 
of  war;  in  the  strength  and  ardor  of  youth,  Rome  carried  her  victorious 
arms  beyond  the  seas  and  mountains;  in  the  strength  and  ardor  of 
youth,  Rome  brought  home  triumphant  laurels  from  every  country 
of  the  globe. 

5.  1  was  buried  for  a  thousaiid  years;  I  was  buried  in  stone  coffins; 
I  was  buried  with  mummies  and  sphinxes ;  I  was  buried  in  narrow 
chambers  at  the  heart  of  the  eternal  pyramids. 

6.  The  island  does  not  abound  in  grand  prospects;  the  island  does 
not  abound  in  sublime  prospects;  but  the  island  abounds  rather  in 
little  home-scenes  ofYural  repose  and  sheltered  quiet. 

7.  My  Uncle  Toby  went  to  his  bureau,  and  my  uncle  Toby  put  his 
purse  into  his  breeches  pocket,  and,  having  ordered  the  corporal  to 
go  early  in  the  morning  for  a  pliysi' ian,  my  Uncle  Toby  went  to  bed 
and  fell  asleep. 

8.  The  fowls  of  the  air  furnish  sustenance  to  man,  and  the  beasts 
of  the  field  furnish  sustenance  to  man,  and  the  dwellers  of  the  deep 
furnish  sustenance  to  man.* 


*NoTF.. — The  members  of  a  compound  sentence  are  subject  to  tlie  rules  of 
punctuation  tliat  have  been  given  for  the  simple  and  for  the  complex  sentence; 
but  the  pupil  shoulil  here  be  taught  the  rules  that  apply  specially  to  the  pimetua- 
tion  of  the  com])oun(l  sentence.     See  (^'ha|iter  X\T. 


THE  COMPOUXD  SENTENCE.  4I 

Synthesis  of  Compound  Sentences. 

In  combining  detached  statements  into  compound  sen- 
tences, the  nature  of  the  separate  statements  should  be 
carefully  considered,  so  as  to  connect  in  construction  the 
members  that  are  connected  in  sense ;  the  closest  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  selection  of  the  proper  conjunction 
when  one  is  required.  Remember  that  conjunctions  mark 
every  turn,  every  change  of  relation ;  therefore,  it  is  of  the 
highest  importance  that  the  writer  be  able  to  estimate 
closely,  in  every  instance,  the  nature  and  extent  of  their  in- 
fluence. 

In  the  synthesis  of  compound  sentences,  much  use  is 
made  of  contraction ;  the  participial  phrase  is  very  useful, 
and  it  is  often  advantageous  to  express  certain  ideas  by 
means  of  dependent  clauses.  The  members  of  a  compound 
sentence  may  be : 

(i)   Simple;  as, 

"Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight, 
And  all  the  air  a  solemn  stillness  holds." 

(2)  Simple  and  Complex;  as,  "My  uncle  is  a  tall,  hard- 
faced  man;   I  fear  him  when  he  calls  me  'child.'  " 

(3)  Complex ;  as,  "  To  be  content  with  what  is  sufficient, 
is  the  greatest  wisdom ;  he  who  increases  his  riches,  in- 
creases his  cares." 

(4)  Compound  sentences  are  sometimes  made  up  of  two 
or  more  members  used  in  pairs  ;  as,  ' '  Homer  \\as  the  greater 
genius ;  Virgil,  the  better  artist ;  in  the  one  we  most  admire 
the  man;  in  the  other,  the  work." 

The  following  examples  illustrate  the  combination  of  de- 
tached statements  into  a  cotnpound  sentence: 

Rhet— 4. 


42 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


Separate 
Statements. 


The  Royal  George  went  down  with  all  her  crew. 
Cowper  wrote  an  exquisitely  simple  poem  about  it. 
The  leaf  holding  this  poem  is  smooth. 
I   The  leaf  bearing  the  lines  on  his  mother's  portrait  is 
[      blistered  with  tears. 
Combined. — When  the  Royal  George  went  down  with  all  her  crew, 
Cowper  wrote  an  exquisitely  simple  poem  about  it.;  but  the  leaf  which 
holds  it  is  smooth,  while  that  which  bears  the  lines  on  his  mother's 
portrait  is  blistered  with  tears. 

1.  Sir  Roger  went  out  fully  satisfied  with  his  entertain- 
ment. 

2.  We  guarded  him  to  his  lodging. 

3.  We  guarded  him  in  a  certain  manner. 

4.  In  this  same  manner  we  brought  him  to  the  play- 
house. 

Separate      .      5-  We  were  highly  pleased. 
Statements.         6.   I,  for  my  own  part,  was  highly  pleased  with  the  per- 
formance of  the  piece. 

7.  1  was  pleased  not  only  with  this. 

8.  The  piece  was  excellent. 

9.  1  was  highly  pleased  by  the  satisfaction  given  by  the 
piece. 

,  10.  This  satisfaction  it  had  given  to  the  good  old  man. 

Combined. — Sir  Roger  went  out  fully  satisfied  with  his  entertain- 
ment, and  we  guarded  him  to  his  lodging  in  the  same  manner  that 
we  brought  him  to  the  playhouse,  being  highly  pleased,  for  my  own 
part,  not  only  with  the  performance  of  the  excellent  piece,  but  with 
the  satisfaction  which  it  had  given  to  the  good  old  man. — Addison.'^' 


*NoTE. — In  combining  the  statements  embraced  in  the  second  group  of  tlie 
examples  given  above,  statement  1  forms  the  first  member. 
Statement  2  forms  the  second  member. 

Statement  3  is  changed  to  a  prepositional  phrase,  used  adverbially. 
Statement  4  forms  a  dependent  clause  of  comparison. 
Statement  5  becomes  a  participial  plirase. 
Statements  6  and  9  are  expressed  as  co-ordina"te  plirascs. 
Statement  7  is  given  in  the  words  "not  only." 
Statement  8  is  expressed  by  the  word  "excellent." 
Slatement  10  appears  as  a  relative  clause. 


THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE. 


EXERCISE  XIV. 


43 


Direction. — Combine  the  statements  in  each  of  the  following  groups  into  a 
compound  sentence: 

1.  The  slow,  regular  swells  of  the  great  Pacific  may  be  heard  through 
the  day.  One,  listening,  may  hear  them.  They  may  be  heard  like  a 
solemn  undertone.  It  is  like  a  solemn  undertone  to  all  the  noises  of 
the  town.  At  midnight  those  successive  shocks  fall  upon  the  ear. 
They  produce  a  sensation  of  inexpressible  solemnity.  All  else  is  still 
at  midnight. 

2.  Only  one  sound  fell  upon  the  ear.  That  sound  was  the  steady 
step  of  the  camel.  Its  feet  were  crunching  through  the  hard  crust. 
We  passed  through  long  stretches  of  soft  sand.  Then  even  the  sound 
of  the  steady  step  seemed  muffled.  The  broad  foot  sank  under  us 
almost  without  a  sound.  This  foot  equals  the  tiger's  in  being  soft  and 
springy.^ 

3.  The  merchant  was  impressed  with  awe.  This  awe  the  humblest 
sleeper  usually  sheds  around  him.  The  merchant  trod  lightly.  The 
gout  would  not  allow  him  to  tread  more  lightly.  His  spouse  took  good 
heed  not  to  rustle  her  silk  gown.  By  reason  of  the  rustling,  David 
might  possibly  start  up  all  of  a  sudden. 

4.  In  spite  of  her  fatness,  Fraulein  Hahlreiner's  step  was  elastic  and 
light.  Her  hands  and  feet  were  delicately  shaped.  Her  broken  En- 
glish was  the  most  deliciously  comic  and  effectively  eloquent  language. 
I  have  never  heard  spoken  a  language  exceeding  it  in  eloquence.  She 
cooked  our  dinner  for  us  at  two.  She  went  shopping  for  or  with  us  at 
five.  She  threw  us  into  fits  of  laughter  at  eight.  She  threw  us  into 
laughter  by  some  unexpected  bit  of  mimicry  or  droll  story.  She  tucked 
us  up  at  bedtime  with  an  affectionate  "  Good  night.  Sleep  well !  "  All 
these  things,  I  can  say  for  her. 

5.  The  first  introduction  of  tea  into  Europe  is  not  known.  It  came 
into  England  from  Holland,  in  1666.  According  to  common  accounts 
it  came  thus.  At  this  time  Lord  Arlington  and  Lord  Ossory  brought 
over  a  small  quantity,  A  pound  of  tea  then  sold  for  sixty  shillings. 
The  custom  of  drinking  tea  became  fashionable. 

6.  Ten  years  afterwards  coffee  as  a  beverage  became  highly  fash- 
ionable in  France.  It  was  made  fashionable  by  the  Turkish  embas- 
sador.   He  was  in  Paris.    The  elegance  of  the  equipage  recommended 


44  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

it  to  the  eye.  The  elegance  of  the  equipage  charmed  the  women. 
The  coffee  was  poured  into  brilhant  porcelain  cups.  The  napkins 
were  fringed  with  gold.  Turkish  slaves  presented  it  on  their  knees 
to  the  ladies.  The  ladies  were  seated  on  the  ground  on  cushions. 
These  things  turned  the  heads  of  the  Parisian  dames. 

7.  We  must  sail  sometimes  with  the  wind.  We  must  sail  sometimes 
against  it.  We  must  do  these  things  to  reach  the  port  of  heaven. 
We  must  not  drift.    We  must  not  lie  at  anchor.    We  must  sail. 

8.  In  Naples,  even  the  lowest  class  enjoy  every  blessing.  Every 
blessing  to  make  the  animal  happy  is  theirs.  They  rejoice  in  a  deli- 
cious climate.  They  revel  in  high  spirits.  They  have  a  happy  facility 
of  satisfying  every  appetite.  They  enjoy  a  conscience  giving  no  pain. 
They  are  happy  in  a  convenient  ignorance  of  their  duty. 

9.  This  scene  was  silent.  All  the  figures  might  have  been  shad- 
ows— [adverbial  clause  c*"  comparison].  The  fire-lit  apartment  might 
have  been  a  picture — [adverbial  clause  of  comparison].  This  scene 
was  hushed.  I  could  hear  the  cinder  fall  from  the  grate — [adverbial 
clause  of  result].  I  could  hear  the  clock  tick  in  its  oiiscurc  (?orner — 
[adverbial  clause  of  result].  I  even  fancied — [something].  I  could 
distinguish  the  click-click  of  the  woman's  knitting-needles. 

10.  The  royal  litter  reeled  more  and  more.  Several  of  the  nol^les 
supporting  it  were  slain.  At  length  it  was  overturned.  The  Indian 
prince  would  have  come  with  violence  to  the  ground.  His  fall  was 
broken  by  the  efforts  of  Pizarro.  His  fiill  was  also  broken  by  the 
efforts  of  some  other  of  the  cavaliers.    They  caught  him  in  their  arms. 

1 1.  At  break  of  day  the  kind  people  saw  all  the  country  under  water. 
The  country  included  rrany  fields.  These  fields,  the  day  before,  were 
beautiful  with  yellow  wheat.  They  were  beautiful  with  the  green  tops 
of  turnips.  Other  crops  had  beautified  these  fields.  These  kind  peo- 
ple were,  at  break  of  day,  looking  out  for  Sandy  Smith  and  his  family. 
The  surface  of  the  flood  was  strewed  with  trees.  It  w.is  strewed  with 
every  kind  of  wreck  from  farms.  Every  kind  of  wreck  from  barns 
and  from  houses  strewed  the  surface  of  the  flood. 

12.  The  Indian  men  are  hunters.  The  Indian  men  are  warriors. 
Such  they  are  in  their  youth.  The  Indian  men  are  counselors.  They 
are  counselors  in  their  old  age.  All  their  government  is  by  counsel 
of  the  sages.  There  is  no  force.  There  ar«  no  officers  to  compel 
obedience.     There  are  no  officers  to  inflict  pu'i^shment. 

13.  The  mocking-bird  many  times  deceive-:-  the  sportsman.  He 
sends  the  sportsman  in  scArcU  of  birds.    These  huds.  perhaps,  are  not 


THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE.  45 

within  miles  of  the  sportsman.  The  mocking-bird  exactly  imitates 
their  notes.  This  admirable  mimic  frequently  imposes  on  birds  them- 
selves. The  birds  are  decoyed  by  the  fancied  calls  of  their  mates. 
They  dive,  with  precipitation,  into  the  depths  of  thickets.  They  dive 
because  of  a  scream.  This  scream  seems  to  be  the  sparrow-hawk's. 
14.  Caesar  was  killed.  Brutus  came  forward.  He  evidently  wanted 
to  say  something  about  the  deed.  The  Senators  did  not  wait  to  listen. 
They  rushed  through  the  door.  They  made  their  escape.  They  filled 
the  people  with  confusion.  They  filled  the  people  with  indescribable 
alarm.  Some  people  closed  their  houses.  Others  left  their  tables  and 
places  of  business.  Some  ran  to  the  place.  They  ran  to  the  place  to 
see — [something].  This  something  had  happened.  Others  ran  away. 
These  others  had  seen  it. 


EXERCISES  IN  COMPOSITION. 

The  following  selections  are  designed  to  give  practice  in 
connected  composition. 

The  exercise  is  to  be  a  Reproduction  of  the  poem  in  prose. 
To  make  a  pleasing  reproduction,  it  is  necessary: 

(1)  To  read  the  poem  until  it  is  thoroughly  understood. 

(2)  To  know  the  essential  parts  so  well  as  to  be  able  to 
write  a  continuous  story,  preserving  a  careful  proportion  of 
parts. 

(3)  To  give  the  poem  fully  enough  and  gracefully  enough 
to  produce  an  agreeable  effect. 

To  insure  a  pleasing  effect  in  prose  composition,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  avoid  rhyme.  To  be  independent  in  the  expression 
of  the  ideas  it  is  necessary  to  avoid  the  language  of  the  poem. 

When  the  poem  is  clearly  understood  it  should  be  laid 
aside,  and  the  list  of  topics  used  to  assist  the  memory.  The 
pupil  should,  from  this  list,  write  out  the  story  in  his  ozvn 
words. 


46  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


REPRODUCTION  T. 

A    NEST    IN    A    POCKET. 

A  LITTLE  bird  went  to  and  fro, 

Once  in  the  nesting  season, 
And  sought  for  sheUer  high  and  low, 

Until,  for  some  queer  reason. 
She  flew  into  a  granary 

Where,  on  a  nail  suspended, 
The  farmer's  coat  she  chanced  to  see, 

And  there  her  search  was  ended. 

The  granary  was  in  a  loft. 

Where  not  a  creature  met  her ; 

The  coat  had  hollows  deep  and  soft- 
Could  anything  be  better  ? 

And  where  it  hung,  how  safe  it  was, 
Without  a  breeze  to  rock  it ! 

Come,  little  busy  beak  and  claws, 
Build  cjuick  inside  the  pocket! 

You  never  saw  a  prettier  nest 

In  rye-field  or  in  clover. 
Than  this  wherein  she  sat  at  rest 

When  building  work  was  over. 
Three  speckled  eggs  soon  warmly  lay 

Beneath  the  happy  sitter; 
Three  little  birds — oh,  joy  ! — one  day 

Began  to  chirp  and  twitter. 

You  would  have  laughed  to  see  them  lie 

Within  the  good  man's  pocket, 
Securely  hid  from  every  eye 

As  pictures  in  a  locket ! 
Busy,  and  blissfully  content. 

With  such  a  place  for  hiding, 
The  little  mother  came  and  went 

To  do  their  small  providing. 


THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE.  47 

And  not  a  creature  wandered  in, 

Her  nestlings  to  discover, 
(Except  a  wasp  that  now  and  then 

About  her  head  would  hover.) 
Until — ah,  can  you  guess  the  tale? — 

The  farmer  came  one  morning, 
And  took  his  coat  down  from  the  nail 

Without  a  word  of  warning ! 

Poor  little  frightened  motherling  ! 

Up  from  her  nest  she  fluttered. 
And  straightway  every  gaping  thing 

Its  wide-mouthed  terror  uttered. 
The  good  man  started  back  aghast; 

But  merry  was  his  wonder 
When  in  the  pocket  he  at  last 

Found  such  unlooked-for  plunder. 

He  laughed  and  laughed.     "Upon  my  word,'' 

He  said  aloud,  "I  never! — 
Who  could  suppose  a  little  bird 

Would  do  a  thing  so  clever? 
Come,  now!  'twould  be  a  shame  to  harm 

The  fruit  of  such  wise  labor. 
I  wouldn't  hurt  you  for  a  farm, 

I\Iy  pretty  little  neighbor!" 

He  put  the  coat  back  carefully: 

"  I  think  I  have  another; 
So  don't  you  be  afraid  of  me. 

You  little  bright-eyed  mother. 
I  know  just  how  you  feel,  poor  thing. 

For  I  have  youngsters,  bless  you ! 
There,  stop  your  foolish  fluttering — 

Nobody  shall  distress  you." 

Then  merrily  he  ran  away 

To  tell  his  wife  about  it, — 
How  in  his  coat  the  nestlings  lay. 


48 


coMrosnK).N  AND  rheioric. 


And  he  must  do  without  it. 
She  laughed  and  said  she  thought  he  could ! 

And  so,  all  unmolested, 
The  mother-birdie  and  her  brood 

Safe  in  the  pocket  rested, 

Till  all  the  little  wings  were  set 

In  proper  flying  feather. 
And  then  there  was  a  nest  to  let — 

For  off  they  flocked  together. 
The  farmer  keeps  it  still  to  show, 

And  says  that  he's  the  debtor; 
His  coat  is  none  the  worse,  you  know, 

While  he's a  little  better. 

Mary  E.  Bradley,  in  SL  Nicholas. 


Topical  Outline. 


Introduciiot. — The  bird's  search  for  shelter. 

She  flies  into  a  granary. 

She  flnds  the  soft  hollows  in  the  farmer's  coat. 

She  builds  a  nest. 

Soon  there  chirp  three  little  birds. 

The  mother  undisturbed  provides  for  them. 

The  farmer  comes  for  his  coat. 

The  fright  of  the  mother  and  the  nestlings. 

The  farmer  quiets  their  fears. 

He  runs  to  tell  his  wife. 

What  the  wife  says. 

The  birds  take  their  flight. 

The  farmer  keeps  the  nest  to  show. 
Conclusion. — The  effect  of  the  farmer's  kindness  on  his  own  heart. 


Discussion.  < 


*NOTE. — In  all  kinds  of  discourse  there  arc  but  three  main  divisions — the  in- 
troduction, the  discussion,  and  the  conclusion.  The  introduction  is  short,  and  is 
designed  to  pave  the  way  for  the  discussion.  The  discussion  includes  all  that 
Ijcars  directly  on  the  subject.  The  conclusion  consists  of  an  inference  or  appli- 
cation, and  fitly  closes  the  discourse. 


THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE.  49 


REPRODUCTION  11. 

THE    PUPIL    OF    CIMABUE. 

A  SHEPHERD  boy  beneath  the  pines 
That  clothe  the  solemn  Apennines. 

All  through  the  day  he  played  his  pipe, 
Or  watched  the  wanderings  of  his  sheep, 

Or,  when  the  pine-cone  seeds  were  ripe, 
He  stored  them  like  a  squirrel's  heap. 

Or,  half-awake  and  half-asleep, 

He  dreamed  among  the  tangled  vines. 

Below  him,  shining  in  the  sun. 

Through  Vespignano's  verdant  vale 

He  saw  the  slender  rivulets  run ; 
Above  him,  by  the  day  made  pale. 

The  moon,  a  phantom  vessel,  sail 
Past  reefs  of  cloud  in  rugged  lines. 

Of  stray  lost  sheep  or  lonely  lamb 

Sometimes  he  heard  the  plaintive  bleat. 

Then  he  would  answer,  "  Here  I  am," 
And  on  his  pipe  make  music  sweet. 

And  run  to  meet  and  gladly  greet 
The  animal  with  friendly  signs. 

A  shepherd  boy  beneath  the  pines 
That  clothe  the  solemn  Apennines. 

Once,  as  he  sat  beside  a  rock. 
For  his  caress  the  favorite  came. 

The  gentlest  sheep  of  all  the  flock. 

Shapely  of  form,  full-fleeced,  and  tame; 

He  stroked  her  head  and  called  her  name, 
While  in  his  mind  grew  grand  designs. 

Rhet.— 5. 


t;0  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC, 

"Can  I  not  picture  her?"  he  thought. 
Then,  satisfied  with  pats  and  praise, 

The  sheep  a  tuft  of  clover  sought, 
And  with  bent  head  began  to  graze ; 

The  child,  not  moving  from  his  place, 
Upon  the  rock  drew  rapid  lines. 

And  while  the  boy  was  busy  still 

With  pencil  made  of  sharpened  slate, 

A  mounted  man  rode  up  the  hill, 

And  seeing  the  child,  he  chose  to  wait 

And  watch  the  work— for  he  was  great 
In  art,  and  knew  Art's  countersigns, 

A  shepherd  boy  beneath  the  pines 
That  clothe  the  solemn  Apennines. 

And  when  he  saw,  the  task  being  done, 

The  sheep  depicted  faithfully, 
Old  Cimabue  said,  "  My  son, 

Will  you  not  come  to  live  with  me. 
My  pupil  and  my  friend  to  be, 

And  leave  your  lonely  Apennines?" 

The  boy,  all  blushing  at  his  words. 

Said,  "Ah,  my  master,  if  I  may! 
My  father,  leading  home  his  herds. 

Comes  even  now  along  the  way ; 
And  I  must  do  as  he  shall  say — 

His  yc's'  accepts,  his  ';/<?'  declines," 

Right  readily  the  father  yields 

His  son  the  "vcs"  of  his  desire; 
And  Giotto  left  his  upland  fields. 

With  heart  and  fancy  all  on  fire, 
To  climb  the  hill  of  Fame— far  higher 

Than  any  slope  of  Apennines. 

A  shepherd  boy  beneath  the  pines 
That  clothe  the  solemn  Apennines. 

E.  Gavazza,  in  5/.  Nicholas. 


THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE. 


51 


Topical  Outline. 


' Iniroduction. — Describe  the  place  of  pasture,  and  tell  how  the  shep- 
herd passed  the  time  while  tending  his  sheep. 

The  favorite  of  the  flock  comes  one  day  for  his  caress. 
His  love  for  her  awakens  in  him  a  great  desire. 
His  effort  to  picture  her  on  the  rock. 
The  great  artist  finds  the  boy  busy  with  pencil  of  sharp- 
ened slate. 
Discussion.  -,   Cimabue  waits  to  see  the  work  completed. 

The  artist  requests  the  boy  to  go  with  him  and  live  as 

his  pupil  and  his  friend. 
The  boy's  strong  wish  to  go,  provided  his  father's  con- 
sent can  be  obtained. 
The  father  readily  gives  the  desired  permission. 
Conclusion. — Giotto's  success  as  an  artist. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

TRANSFORMATION    OF    ELEMENTS. 

The  elements  of  a  sentence  may  be  transformed  by  sub- 
stituting one  part  of  speech,  or  modifier,  for  another. 
Words  may  be  transformed  to  phrases  or  otJicr  zvord  ele- 
ments. By  omission  and  contraction,  clauses,  dependent  or 
independent,  may  be  transformed  to  phrases  or  single  ivords ; 
phrases,  to  single  words  or  to  other  phrase  elements. 

EXERCISE  XV. 

Direction. — In  the  following  sentences,  change,  where  you  can,  the  adjec- 
tives, adverbs,  and  nouns  in  the  possessive  case,  to  prepositional  phrases.  Thus: 
The  sensible  man,  the  man  of  sense  ;  He  labored  cheerfully,  he  labored  with  cheer- 
fulness ;  The  soldier's  duty,  the  duty  of  the  soldier. 

1.  The  country's  food  may  have  been  lessened  only  by  a  fourth 
part  of  its  usual  supply. 

2.  This  dreadful  object  mii;ht  quell  the  bravest  men's  courage. 

3.  I  noticed  these  objects  cursorily. 

4.  A  large  old  pointer  dog  rested  its  head  on  the  girl's  knee. 

5.  The  other  girl's  lap  was  the  black  cat's  cushion. 

6.  With  the  servant's  aid,  I  contrived  to  mount  a  stair-case. 

7.  Let  his  shames  quickly  dri\e  him  to  Rome. 

8.  Have  you  perused  the  duke's  letters? 

9.  The  sun  really  gives  vigor. 

ID.  The  passengers  walk  through  the  woods  fearing  and  dreading. 

11.  Ifninterrupted  sunshine  would  parch  our  hearts. 

12.  Natural  good  is  closely  connected  with  moral  good  and  natural 
evil. 

13.  To  an  energetic  man  this  is  easy. 

14.  The  water  is  flowing  verv  rapidly. 


TRANSFORMATION  OF  ELEMENTS.  53 


EXERCISE    XVI. 

Direction.  —  Change,  if  possible,  the  prepositional  phrases  in  these  senten- 
ces to  adjectives,  to  adverbs,  or  to  nouns  in  the  possessive  case.  Thus:  Wines  of 
France,  French  wines ;  He  spoke  with  calmness,  he  spoke  calmly ;  The  word  of 
God,  God's  word. 

1.  A  soul  without  reflection  runs  to  ruin. 

2.  Too  soon  the  flowers  of  spring  will  fade. 

3.  Shakespeare  is  without  doubt  the  poet  of  nature. 

4.  The  flowers  of  late  sprung  a  beauteous  sisterhood. 

5.  The  palace  of  the  royal  family  was  destroyed  by  fire  on  the  fifth 
night. 

6.  He  knew  the  subtle  art  of  no  school-man. 

7.  He  spoke  with  decision. 

8.  They  rest  in  peace. 

9.  Three  fishers  went  sailing  toward  the  west. 

10.  Hope  is  the  dream  of  a  waking  man. 

11.  In  a  laughing  manner,  they  accept  my  reflections. 

12.  Our  actions  disclose  the  secret  in  the  heart. 

13.  A  strong  mind,  in  all  cases,  hopes. 

14.  A  fine  day  is  commended  by  every  one, 

15.  The  animal  with  long  ears  gives  a  kick  to  the  bucket. 

16.  The  age,  without  question,  produces  daring  profligates,  and 
hypocrites  of  an  insidious  character. 


EXERCISE   XVII. 

Direction.  —  In  the  following  sentences,  change,  where  you  can,  the  parti- 
ciples to  infinitive  phrases,  and  the  infinitive  phrases  to  participles.  Thus:  Earn- 
ing is  having,  to  earn  is  to  have. 

1.  Dying,  but  dying  bravely — . 

2.  Lying  is  base. 

3.  To  bear  your  father's  name  is  indeed  an  honor  to  you. 

4.  To  laugh  would  be  want  of  grace. 

5.  Waiting  on  the  bank  for  the  river  to  run  by  is  foolish,  indeed. 

6.  To  smile  at  the  jest  is  to  become  a  principal  in  the  mischief. 

7.  Walking  by  moonlight  was  her  favorite  ainusement. 


54  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC. 

8.  To  take  offence  at  every  trifling  scorn  shows  great  pride  or  little 
sense. 

9.  Praying  is  contemplating  the  facts  of  life  from  the  highest  point 
of  view. 

10.  To  believe  your  own  thought,  to  believe  that  what  is  true  for 
you  in  your  private  heart  is  true  for  all  men, — that  is  genius. 

11.  To  tell  all  that  we  think  is  inexpedient. 

12.  Confessing  the  truth,  I  was  greatly  to  blame  for  my  indiscretion. 

13.  To  pull  down  the  false  and  to  build  up  the  true,  and  to  uphold 
what  there  is  of  true  in  the  old, — let  this  be  our  endeavor. 

14.  Striving  to  make  men  contented  is  undertaking  an  impossibility. 

15.  The  stranger  was  heard  to  warn  them  of  the  danger,  and  to  in- 
cite them  to  duty. 

16.  This  duty,  to  obey,  is  recognized. 

17.  In  this  place,  they  at  first  began  meeting,  singing,  praying, 
preaching,  and  baptizing. 

18.  Being  delightful  is  being  classic. 

19.  To  spend  too  much  time  in  studies  is  sloth;  to  use  them  too 
much  for  ornament  is  affectation. 

20.  Hoping  too  much  from  the  patronage  of  powerful  individuals 
is  dooming  one's  self  to  disappointment. 

21.  To  take  only  the  historical  parts  of  the  Old  Testament,  there  is 
nothing  like  them  in  the  power  of  exciting  awe  and  admiration. 


CONTR.^CTION. 

By  means  of  contraction,  compound  sentences  are  reduced 
to  complex  and  to  simple  sentences.  To  contract  a  com- 
pound sentence  into  a  complex  sentence,  we  convert  one 
of  the  independent  members  into  a  clause;  to  contract  a 
complex  sentence  into  a  simple  sentence,  we  convert  the 
dependent  clauses  into  words  or  phrases.  The  following 
examples  illustrate  the  method: 

Compound. —  Von  arc  perplexed,  and  I  see  it. 

Complex. — I  sec  that  you  are  perplexed. 

Simple. — I  sec  your  perplexity. 

Compounil. —  The  child  loves  his  parents,  iXxexGioiQ  he  obeys  tliem. 


TRANSFORMATION  OF  ELEMENTS.  55 

Complex. — The  child  obeys  his  parents,  because  he  loves  iheni. 
Simple. — The  child  oheys,  from  loi/e  to  his  parents. 

1.  The  adjective  clauses  of  a  complex  sentence  may 
be  contracted  by  dropping  the  subject  and  the  verb.  Thus : 
"The  child,  ivJio  zvas  overxome  by  fatigue,  soon  fell  asleep," 
may  be  changed  to,   "The  child,  overcome  by  fatigue,''  etc. 

The  adverb  clauses  of  a  complex  sentence  may  be  con- 
tracted by  dropping  the  subject,  verb,  and  connective.  Thus : 
"The  Romans  took  Cincinnatus  from  the  plow,  that  lie 
viigJit  be  dictator,''  changed  to,  "The  Romans  took  Cincin- 
natus from  the  plow  to  make  him  dictator." 

2.  An  adjective  clause  may  be  contracted  into  3.  prep- 
ositional phrase  with  a  ?ioini  for  the  principal  word.  Thus : 
"A  man,  ivho  is  indolent,"  changed  to,  "A  man  of  indolent 
character." 

An  adverb  or  a  noun  claus'-  may  be  contracted  into  a 
prepositional  phrase  with  a  participle  or  a  nonn  for  the  prin- 
cipal word.  Thus :  ' '  When  that  the  poor  have  cried,  Caesar 
hath  wept, ' '  changed  to,  '  'At  the  cry  of  the  poor,  Caesar 
hath  wept "  ;  ' '  We  hoped  that  he  zvoidd  recover, "  changed  to, 
* '  We  hoped  for  Jus  recovery. ' ' 

3.  Adjective,  adverb,  and  noun  clauses  may  be  con- 
tracted to  participles,  or  to  phrases  containing  participles. 
Thus :  "This  is  the  only  course  which  is  left  to  us,"  changed 
to,  "This  is  the  only  course  left  to  us";  "As  he  came  for- 
ward, he  took  his  brother's  hand,"  changed  to,  "Coming 
forward,\v&  took  his  brother's  hand  "  ;  "We  regret  that  ive 
never  reached  the  goal,"  changed  to,  "We  regret  Jiavtng 
never  readied  the  goal. ' ' 

4.  Adjective,  adverb,  and  noun  clauses  may  be  con- 
tracted to  infinitive pJirases.      Thus:    "The  sailors  found  no 


56  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

haven  wJmr  they  might  cast  anchor,''  changed  to,  "The  sail- 
ors found  no  haven  to  cast  ancho}-" ;  "He  strove  that  he 
might  conquer,''  changed  to,  "He  strove  to  conqner" ;  ' '  That 
zi'c  do  good  to  our  enemies  is  commanded,"  changed  to,  "71? 
do  good  to  our  enemies  is  commanded. " 

5.  Adverb  clauses  may  be  contracted  to  absolute  phrases. 
Thus:  ''When  the  rain  ceased,  we  resumed  our  journey," 
changed  to,  "  The  rain  liaving  ceased,  we  resumed  our  jour- 
ney." 

EXERCISE  XVIII. 

Direction.  —  Get  rid  of  as  many  of  the  following  adjective  and  adverb  clauses 
as  you  can  : 

1.  The  wretched  prisoner,  who  seemed  overwhelmed  by  his  mis- 
fortune, was  on  the  point  of  putting  an  end  to  his  existence. 

2.  The  soldiers  of  the  tenth  legion,  who  were  exhausted  from  want 
of  food,  could  not  resist  the  onset  of  the  enemy. 

3.  In  mere  love  of  what  is  vile,  Charles  II.  stood  ahead  of  any 
of  his  subjects. 

4.  He  was  so  feeble  that  he  could  not  walk. 

5.  He  has  lived  there  ever  since  he  was  born. 

6.  The  bundle  is  so  heavy  that  I  can  not  lift  it. 

7.  My  brother  lives  in  a  house  which  is  one  hundred  years  old. 

8.  He  is  as  wise  as  he  is  learned. 

9.  The  best  sermon  which  was  ever  preached  upon  modern  society 
is  Vanity  Fair. 

10.  I  have  experienced  nothing  that  was  not  kind  at  his  hands. 

11.  Hope,  which  is  the  star  of  life,  never  Sets. 

12.  When  the  boy  had  completed  his  task,  he  went  to  play. 

13.  He  has  lost  the  book  which  I  gave  him. 

14.  The  book  that  was  lost  has  been  found. 

I  5.  Wherever  they  marched,  their  route  was  marked  with  blood. 

16.  A  fierce  spirit  of  rivalry,  which  is  at  all  times  a  dangerous  pas- 
sion, had  now  taken  full  possession  of  him. 

17.  Attend,  that  you  may  receive  instruction. 


TRANSFORMATION  OF  ELEMENTS.  57 


EXERCISE  XIX. 

Direction. —  Contract  the  following  adjective,  adverb,  and  noun  clauses  to 
prepositional  phrases  with  noiiiis  or  participles  as  the  principal  words: 

1.  Tell  me  how  old  you  were  when  I  first  met  you. 

2.  The  fact  that  he  was  there  has  been  clearly  shown. 

3.  He  did  not  tell  me  why  he  went  away. 

4.  Except  ye  repent,  ye  shall  all  likewise  perish. 

5.  He  will  go  to  ruin  unless  he  alter  his  conduct. 

6.  Trains  should  be  run  that  travelers  may  be  accommodated. 

7.  If  we  keep  to  the  golden  mean  in  everything,  we  shall  at  least 
avoid  danger. 

8.  As  soon  as  I  landed,  I  was  accosted  by  some  of  the  principal 
chiefs. 

9.  When  we  had  rounded  a  point  of  land,  we  saw  immediately 
before  us  the  great  Manitoulin  Island. 

10.  As  I  did  not  take  notes  of  this  speech,  I  could  not  accurately 
repeat  it. 

11.  The  friends  of  the  wounded  man  were  hopeful  that  he  would 
recover. 

12.  There  is  something,  too,  which  is  immortal  in  the  sad,  faint 
sweetness. 

13.  It  carries  me  in  blissful  thought  to  the  banks  of  asphodel  that 
border  the  River  of  Life. 

14.  We  are  very  sure  that  he  will  appreciate  your  kindness. 

1 5.  An  infinity  of  elders,  who  had  streaming  beards,  had  prostrated 
themselves  before  the  ascent  of  a  lofty  eminence. 

16.  A  sharp  criticism  which  has  a  drop  of  witty  venom  in  it,  stings 
a  young  author  almost  to  death. 

17.  Men,  hke  peaches  and  pears,  grow  sweet  a  little  while  before 
they  are  ready  to  fall. 

18.  If  things  go  on  in  this  way,  a  gentleman  will  not  be  able  to 
speak  his  own  mind. 

19.  The  people  could  not  refrain  from  capering  if  they  heard  the 
sound  of  a  fiddle. 

20.  The  Mohammedan  lives  as  the  Koran  directs. 

21.  He  prayed  that  he  might  be  speedily  succored, 


58  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 


EXERCISE  XX. 

Direction.  —  Change  each  dependent  clause  in  the  following  sentences  to 
a  participle,  or  to  a  phrase  containing  a  participle  : 

1.  This  is  the  only  witchcraft  he  has  used. 

2.  As  he  rushed  forward,  he  shouted  to  his  companions. 

3.  The  big  fifth-form  boys,  who  were  a  sporting  and  drinking  set, 
soon  began  to  usurp  power. 

4.  His  own  associates,  who  were  looking  on,  took  no  trouble  to 
hide  their  scorn  from  hiin. 

5.  Men  who  are  unacquainted  with  literature  have  little  idea  of 
the  solace  it  affords. 

6.  At  Rugby,  the  Avon  is  a  capital  river  for  bathing,  as  it  has 
many  nice  small  pools,  all  within  a  mile  of  one  another. 

7.  The  landlord,  as  he  rode  past,  was  hissed  at  the  school  gates. 

8.  As  they  start  into  the  next  field,  they  recognize  Holmes  and 
Diggs  taking  a  constitutional. 

9.  This  was  the  first  gap  which  the  angel  Death  had  made  in 
Tom's  circle. 

10.  As  he  wearily  labored  at  his  line,  he  thought  it  possible  for  the 
report  to  be  altogether  false. 

1 1.  Here  he  had  felt  the  drawing  of  the  bond  which  links  all  living 
souls  together  in  one  brotherhood. 

12.  When  several  men  are  employed  in  lifting  the  same  weight, 
they  co-operate  with  each  other. 

13.  Poor  Adam,  who  was  banished  and  undone,  went  and  lived  a 
sad  life  in  the  mountains  of  India. 

14.  Now  that  I  was  resolved  to  be  a  poet,  I  saw  everything  with  a 
new  purpose. 

15.  Every  country  which  I  have  surveyed  has  contributed  some- 
thing to  my  poetical  powers. 

16.  Dark  clothes  are  warm  in  summer,  because  they  absorb  the 
rays  of  the  sun. 

17.  Error  dies  of  lockjaw,  if  she  scratches  her  finger. 

18.  Who  does  not  regret  that  he  never  heard  the  matchless  elo- 
quence of  Demosthenes .'' 

19.  Had  he  thy  reason,  would  he  skip  and  play? 

20.  It  fell  nut,  fur  it  w.is  founded  un  a  rock. 


TRANSFORMATION  OF  ELEMENTS. 


EXERCISE  XXI. 


59 


Direction.  —  Contract  the  dependent  clauses  in  the  following  sentences  to 
phrases  containing  infinitives : 

1.  Men  seeing  clearly  how  they  should  act  in  difficult  cases,  are 
invaluable  helpers. 

2.  We  set  out  early  in  the  morning  that  we  might  reach  the  sum- 
mit of  the  mountain  by  sunset. 

3.  Be  ye  not  terrified  when  ye  shall  hear  of  wars  and  commotions. 

4.  Strangers  have  wept  when  they  have  heard  his  deep  and  pas. 
sionate  notes. 

5.  The  Son  of  Man  had  no  place  where  he  might  lay  his  head. 

6.  There  is  a  time  when  one  may  dance. 

7.  Some  men  are  foolish,  because  they  risk  health  and  happiness 
in  acquiring  wealth. 

8.  That  we  make  the  most  of  opportunities  is  an  inestimable  priv- 
ilege. 

9.  These  wretched  people  are  seldom  with  the  means  by  which 
they  can  procure  food. 

10.  The  pilot  proceeded  to  the  wheel  that  he  might  undertake  with 
his  own  hands  the  steerage  of  the  ship. 

11.  It  is  a  perilous  thing  when  canvas  is  loosed  in  such  a  tempest. 

12.  I  perceived  the  victor  using  every  art  by  which  the  enemy 
could  be  drawn  from  his  stronghold. 

13.  I  hope  that  I  may  go  soon. 

14.  That  we  hate  our  foes   is  forbidden. 

15.  Fortune  has  denied  you  the  leisure  wherein  you  may  acquire 
knowledge. 

EXERCISE  XXII. 

Direction.  —  Change  the  adverb  clauses  in  the  following  sentences  to  abso- 
lute phrases : 

1.  When  spring  comes,  the  flowers  will  bloom. 

2.  After  Conrad  had  been  well  refreshed,  Canasetogo  began  to 
converse  with  him. 

3.  As  the  sloth  is  an  inhabitant  of  forests  within  the  tropics,  there 


60  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

seems  to  be  no  reason  of  his  confining  himself  to  one  tree  alone  for 
food. 

4.  As  the  storm  increased,  they  landed  from  the  vessel  and  wan- 
dered about  without  any  definite  object. 

5.  When  Metellus  arrived  at  Rome,  the  soldiers  deserted  Octavius. 

6.  While  matters  w^ere  in  this  state,  the  Senate  sent  a  deputation 
to  Cinna  and  Marius  to  invite  them  into  the  city. 

7.  Every  avenue  to  escape  was  closed,  for  the  entrance  to  the 
scjuare  was  choked  up  with  the  dead  bodies  of  men. 

8.  As  hospitality  was  formerly  the  virtue  of  the  Romans,  every 
stranger  was  relieved  or  rewarded  by  their  generosity. 

9.  When  my  sufferings  make  me  measure  sadly  the  length  of  the 
night,  I  often  divert  my  mind  from  my  present  state,  in  thinking  of 
the  various  events  of  my  life. 

10.  When  the  speaker  has  finished,  the  members  of  the  council 
leave  him  five  or  six  minutes  to  recollect  anything  inadvertently 
omitted. 

11.  As  the  Indians  hear  with  patience  the  truths  of  the  gospel  ex- 
plained to  them,  you  would  think  their  acceptance  of  these  truths  cer- 
tain.* 

EXERCISE  XXIII. 

Direction. — Contract  the  following  complex  sentences  into  simple  sentences, 
and  tell  the  kind  of  phrase  into  which  each  dependent  clause  is  contracted: 

1.  He  was  there  when  the  train  arrived. 

2.  When  Xerxes  had  resolved  to  invade  Greece,  he  raised  an  army 
of  two  millions  of  men. 

3.  If  your  friends  come,  they  will  be  welcome. 

4.  Hope,  which  is  the  star  of  life,  darts  a  ray  of  light  through  the 
thickest  gJoom. 

5.  My  friend  Sir  Roger,  who  is  a  good  churchman,  has  beautified 
the  inside  of  his  church  with  several  texts  of  his  own  choosing. 

6.  A  pin,  which  might  be  paste,  or  could  be  diamond,  peeped  be- 
low a  tattered  and  dingy  black  kid  stock,  like  a  gypsy's  eye  beneath 
her  hair. 


*NoTE. — The  nominative  absolute  should  be  used  sparingly,  as  its  use  tends  to 
weakness  of  style,  or  to  ambiguity. 


TRANSFORMATION    OF  ELEMENTS.  6l 

7.  Charles  V.,  when  he  abdicated  a  throne  and  retired  to  the  mon- 
astery of  St.  Juste,  amused  himself  with  the  mechanical  arts. 

8.  The  whole  nation  heard  with  astonishment  that  the  Emperor 
had  abdicated. 

9.  A  loft  raised  some  seven  or  eight  feet,  which  was  reached  by  a 
ladder,  was  the  resting-place  that  awaited  us. 

10.  As  soon  as  day  appeared,  all  the  family,  making  a  great  noise, 
came  to  awaken  us  as  we  had  requested. 

11.  Rags,  which  are  the  reproach  of  poverty,  are  the  beggar's  robes 
and  graceful  insignia  of  his  profession. 

12.  The  two  men  whom  Lord  Nelson  especially  honored  were  Sir 
Thomas  Troubridge  and  Sir  Alexander  Ball. 

13.  In  the  gardens  of  Findamore,  which  are  usually  fringed  with 
nettles,  you  will  see  a  solitary  laborer,  working  with  carelessness  and 
apathy. 

14.  The  site  that  I  had  chosen  for  the  shanty  was  near  to  a  little 
brook,  on  the  top  of  the  main  river's  bank. 

15.  The  most  good-natured  host  began  to  repent  of  his  eagerness 
to  serve  a  man  of  genius  in  distress,  when  he  heard  his  guest  roaring 
for  fresh  punch  at  five  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

16.  We  call  one  man  a  great  historical  painter,  because  he  has 
taken  for  his  subjects  kings  or  great  men,  or  transactions  over  which 
time  has  thrown  a  grandeur. 

17.  That  wonderful  book.  Pilgrim's  Progress,  while  it  obtains  ad- 
miration from  the  most  fastidious  critics,  is  loved  by  those  who  are 
too  simple  to  admire  it. 


EXERCISE  XXIV. 

Direction. — Contract  the  following  compound  sentences  into  complex,  and, 
where  possible,  into  simple.     Explain  the  nature  of  the  contraction: 

1.  The  shadow  of  the  earth,  in  every  position,  is  round;  conse- 
quently the  earth  is  a  globe. 

2.  Hatred  stirreth  up  strifes,  but  love  covereth  all  sins. 

3.  You  must  assist  me,  otherwise  I  can  not  succeed. 

4.  It  is  no  honor  to  be  rich ;  and  to  be  poor  is  no  sin. 

5.  He  had  many  relatives,  but  he  died  without  a  friend. 


52  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

6.  You  must  either  pay  the  debt  or  youTiiust  go  to  prison. 

7.  He  was  an  honorable  man,  and  therefore  his  friends  trusted 

him. 

8.  We  were  compelled  to  ford  the  river,  but  we  got  across  without 

accident. 

9.  I  ate  my  dinner,  and  I  then  went  out  for  a  walk. 

10.  Our  bugles  sang  truce,  for  the  night-cloud  had  lowered, 

And  the  sentinel  stars  set  their  watch  in  the  sky. 

1 1 .  One  bright  laughing  day,  I  threw  down  my  book  an  hour  sooner 
than  usual,  and  with  a  lightness  of  foot  and  exhilaration  of  spirit  I 
sallied  out. 

12.  Murder  will  speak  with  most  miraculous  organ,  and  yet  it  has 
no  tongue. 

13.  Be  thou  faithful  unto  death,  and  I  will  give  thee  a  crown  of 
life. 

14.  Knowledge  is  not,  like  food,  destroyed  by  use,  but  it  is  rather 
augmented  and  perfected. 


EXERCISE  XXV. 

Direction. — Transform  the  italicized  phrases  and  danses  \nto  sin^/e  7vords 
ox  shorter  phrases.     Thus: 

His  countenance  was  marked  by  an  entire  absence  of  color.     His  countenance 
was  pallid. 

1.  The  Style  of  this  book  is  of  such  a  nature  that  it  can  not  be  un- 
derstood. 

2.  Morning  arose  in  splendor  that  was  undimmed  by  clouds. 

3.  As  was  the  historian,  so  were  the  auditors,  _f,wt'«  to  asking  ques- 
tions, apt  to  believe  on  slight  evidence. 

4.  I  have  in  life  met  with  a  few  things  which  I  found  it  impossi- 
ble to  explain. 

5.  No  great  name  strikes  it  7vith  terror. 

6.  They  shock  minds  that  are  imbued  with  piety  and  7vith  rever- 
ence. 

7.  In  accordance  with  this,  education  is  becoming  the  work  of 
nations. 


TRANSFORMATION   OF  ELEMENIS.  63 

8.  The  art  of  drawing,  in  some  countries,  is  taught  in  schools  to 
which  all  classes  are  admitted. 

9.  Works  designed  for  the  halls  of  etnperors,  popes,  a7td  nobles  find 
their  way  in  no  poor  representations  into  humble  dwellings. 

10.  On  assuming  command  of  a  man-of-war,  he  found  a  crew  that 
7uas  in  a  state  of  open  defiance  to  lawful  authority. 

11.  Instead  of  encouragement  marked  by  the  spirit  of  brotherly 
kindness,  he  gave  me  scoffs  and  threats. 

12.  Such  charity  as  is  taught  by  the  Christian  religion  is  friendship 
to  all  the  world. 

13.  Persistejtt  effort  succeeds  in  doing  anything. 

14.  We  shudder  at  his  nimbleness  and  skill  in  doing  deeds  of  evil. 

15.  The  council  took  all  care  that  could  be  thought  of  for  their  re- 
lief. 

16.  A  little  room  adjoining  the  hall  is  used  as  a  place  for  storing 
guns  and  ammunition. 

17.  He  received  a  tribute  that  is  in  every  way  suited  to  recompense 
him  for  his  benevolence  to  all  men  everyivhere. 

18.  I  pressed  my  shivering  children  to  my  bosom,  but  I  could  not 
speak. 

19.  This  rescue  was  in  itself  a  thing  which  so  excited  wonder  \h.2i\. 
it  was  some  time  before  I  could  realize  that  it  was  true. 

20.  The  opposition  could  reward  those  who  bcstoiued  upon  it  exces- 
sive and  studied  praise  with  little  more  than  promises. 

21.  Benevolent  men  at  length  became  weary  of  giving  relief  which 
was  dissipated  with  the  wildest  profjcsion  as  soon  as  it  had  been  re- 
ceived. 

22.  His  house  became  a  place  of  refuge  for  a  crowd  of  wretched  old 
creatures. 

23.  The  wind  which  netfer  ceases  blows  a  blast  that  is  keen  to-night. 

24.  The  \&-\\c.%  produced  soft  sounds  in  the  air. 

25.  The  dead  man  lay  with  his  face  turned  tipwards  to  the  sky. 

26.  Now,  all  dames  given  to  finding  fault  should  know  the  story 
of  Grandmother  Hopeful,  who  bore,  without  murmur  or  repining,  the 
many  ills  of  her  life. 

27.  There  is  no  place  where  one  must  climb,  no  place  where  one 
tnust go  down,  no  place  wliereoti  one  may  rest,  no  stile  which  turns  in 
the  path,  with  which  we  are  not  perfectly  acquainted. 

28.  He  redeemed  wxaw  from  the  worship  of  that  idol,  self. 


64  coMrosrnox  and  rhetoric. 


Expansion. 

A  simple  sentence  may  be  converted  into  a  complex  sen- 
tence by  changing  5ome  word  or  phrase  into  a  clause. 

A  complex  sentence  may  be  converted  into  a  compound 
sentence  by  changing  a  clause  into  an  independent  member. 

The  process  by  which  these  changes  are  made  is  called 
expansion.     The  following  examples  illustrate  the  method : 

Simple. — The  wise  man  is  the  man  of  years. 
Complex. — The  man  that  is  wise  is  the  man  of  years. 

Simple. — The  enemy,  beaten  at  all  points,  surrendered. 
Complex. — The  enemy,  which  had  beefi  beaten  at  all  points,  sur- 
rendered. 

Simple. —  Oppressed  by  the  heat,  we  sought  the  cool  shade. 
Complex. — We  sought  the  cool  shade,  because  we  were  oppressed 

by  the  heat. 
Compound. —  We  were  oppressed  by  the  heat,  hence  we  sought  the 

cool  shade. 


EXERCISE  XXVI. 

Direction. — Expand  the  following  simple  sentences  into  complex,  and  state 
whether  the  clause  thus  introduced  is  adjectival,  adverbial,  or  substantive  : 

1.  My  friend's  account  of  the  affair  alarmed  me. 

2.  An  old  man  on  horseback  passed  us  on  the  road  between 
Monticello  and  Charlottesville. 

3.  The  most  difficult  tasks  are  overcome  by  perseverance. 

4.  Why  have  you  kept  this  news  from  me  so  long? 

5.  A  horseman  wrapped  in  a  huge  cloak  entered  the  yard. 

6.  And  seeing  the  multitudes,  he  went  up  into  the  mountain. 

7.  Thus,  after  a  siege  of  fifty-three  days,  was  Constantinople  irre- 
trievably subdued  by  the  arms  of  Mahomet  the  Second. 

8.  The  Indians  with  surprise  found  the  moldering  trees  of  their 
forests  suddenly  teeming  with  ambrosial  sweets. 


TRANSFORMATION  OF  ELEMENTS.  65 

9.  Two  of  the  be€-hunters  now  plied  their  axes  vigorously  at  the 
root  of  the  tree,  to  level  it  with  the  ground. 

10.  My  heart  was  filled  with  a  deep  melancholy  to  see  several  drop- 
ping unexpectedly  in  the  midst  of  mirth  and  jollity. 

1 1.  Several  of  them  in  the  act  of  striking  at  the  enemy  fell  down 
from  mere  weakness. 

12.  The  great  qualities  of  Charlemagne  were  indeed  alloyed  by  the 
vices  of  a  barbarian  and  a  conqueror. 

13.  Jerusalem  has  derived  some  reputation  from  the  number  and 
importance  of  her  memorable  sieges. 

14.  To  form  an  adequate  idea  of  the  duties  of  this  crisis,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  raise  your  minds  to  a  level  with  your  station. 


EXERCISE  XXVII. 

Direction. — Expand  the  following  simple  sentences  into  complex,  and  then, 
if  possible,  into  compound : 

1.  Through  this  dismayed  and  bewildered  multitude,  the  discon- 
solate family  of  their  gallant  general  made  their  way  silently  to  the 
shore. 

2.  My  companion,  climbing  up  alone,  and  already  nearly  asleep, 
laid  himself  down  with  his  head  upon  the  precious  portmanteau. 

3.  At  Athens,  at  once  the  center  and  capital  of  Greek  philosophy 
and  heathen  superstition,  takes  place  the  first  pubhc  and  direct  con- 
flict between  Christianity  and  Paganism. 

4.  At  the  same  time,  the  good  old  knight,  with  a  mixture  of  the 
father  and  the  master  of  the  family,  tempered  the  inquiries  after  his 
own  affairs  with  several  kind  questions  relating  to  themselves. 

5.  At  the  top  of  the  stair  we  saw  a  small  tray,  with  a  single  plate 
and  glasses  for  one  solitary  person's  dinner. 

6.  Often  in  the  narrations  of  history  and  fiction,  an  agent  of  the 
most  dreadful  designs  compels  a  sentiment  of  deep  respect  for  the  un- 
conquerable mind  displayed  in  their  execution. 

7.  Accordingly,  they  got  a  painter  by  the  knight's  directions  to 
add  a  pair  of  whiskers  to  the  face,  and,  by  a  httle  aggravation  of  the 
features,  to  change  it  into  the  Saracen's  Head. 

8.  In  the  first  chapter  of  Don  Quixote,  Cervantes,  with  a  few 
strokes  of  a  great  master,  sets  before  us  the  pauper  gentleman,  an 

Rhet.— 6 


66  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

early  riser  and  keen  sportsman,  idle  for  the  most  part  of  the  year,  but 
fond  of  reading  books  of  chivalry. 

9.  Of  an  idle,  unrevolving  man  the  kindest  Destiny,  like  the  most 
assiduous  potter  without  a  wheel,  can  bake  and  knead  nothing  other 
than  a  botch. 

ID.  Then  the  road  passing  straight  on  through  a  waste  moor,  the 
towers  of  a  distant  city  at  length  appear  before  the  traveler. 

1 1.  Amid  all  the  buzzing  noise  of  the  games  and  the  perpetual  pass- 
ing in  and  out  of  people,  he  seemed  perfectly  calm  and  abstracted, 
without  the  smallest  particle  of  excitement  in  his  composition. 

12.  The  stutterer  had  almost  finished  his  travels  through  Europe 
and  part  of  Asia,  without  ever  budging  beyond  the  liberties  of  the 
King's  Bench,  except  in  term-time,  with  a  tip-staff  for  his  companion. 

13.  He  wore  an  ample  cloak  of  black  sheep's  wool,  faded  into  a 
dull  brown,  and  recently  refreshed  by  an  enormous  patch  of  the 
original  color. 

14.  One  window  there  was — a  perfect  and  unpretending  cottage 
window,  with  little  diamond  panes,  embowered  at  almost  every  sea- 
son of  the  year  with  roses;  and,  in  the  summer  and  autumn,  with  a 
profusion  of  jasmine  and  other  fragrant  shrubs. 

15.  The  foremost,  a  somewhat  tall  young  woman,  with  the  most 
winning  expression  of  benignity  upon  her  features,  advanced  to  me, 
presenting  her  hand  with  an  air  frank  enough  to  dispel  every  shadow 
of  embarrassment. 

EXERCISES  IN  COMPOSITION. 

REPRODUCTION  III. 

THE    INCHCAPE     ROCK. 

No  stir  in  the  air,  no  stir  in  the  sea, 
The  ship  was  still  as  she  could  be ; 
Her  sails  from  heaven  received  no  motion ; 
Her  keel  was  steady  in  the  ocean. 

Without  either  sign  or  sound  of  their  shock, 
The  waves  flowed  over  the  Inchcape  Rock; 
So  little  they  rose,  so  little  they  fell. 
They  did  not  move  the  Inchcape  Bell. 


TRANSFORMATION   OF  ELEMENTS.  67 

The  Abbot  of  Abe^rothok 
Had  placed  that  bell  on  the  Inchcape  Rock ; 
On  a  buoy  in  the  storm  it  floated  and  swung, 
And  over  the  waves  its  warning  rung. 

When  the  Rock  was  hid  by  the  surge's  swell, 
The  mariners  heard  the  warning  bell; 
And  then  they  knew  the  perilous  rock, 
And  blessed  the  Abbot  of  Aberbrothok. 

The  sun  in  heaven  was  shining  gay ; 

All  things  were  joyful  on  that  day ; 

The  sea-birds  screamed  as  they  wheeled  round, 

And  there  was  joyance  in  their  sound. 

The  buoy  of  the  Inchcape  Bell  was  seen, 
A  darker  speck  on  the  ocean  green : 
Sir  Ralph  the  Rover  walked  his  deck, 
And  he  fixed  his  eye  on  the  darker  speck. 

He  felt  the  cheering  power  of  spring; 
It  made  him  whistle,  it  made  him  sing; 
His  heart  was  mirthful  to  excess, 
But  the  Rover's  mirth  was  wickedness. 

His  eye  was  on  the  Inchcape  float; 
Quoth  he,  "  My  men,  put  out  the  boat. 
And  row  me  to  the  Inchcape  Rock, 
And  I  '11  plague  the  Abbot  of  Aberbrothok." 

The  boat  is  lowered,  the  boatmen  row. 

And  to  the  Inchcape  Rock  they  go ; 

Sir  Ralph  bent  over  from  the  boat, 

And  he  cut  the  bell  from  the  Inchcape  float. 

Down  sunk  the  bell  with  a  gurgling  sound ; 

The  bubbles  rose  and  burst  around ; 

Quoth  Sir  Ralph,  "The  next  who  comes  to  the  rock 

Won't  bless  the  Abbot  of  Aberbrothok." 


68  COMPOSITION    AND  RHETORIC. 

Sir  Ralph  the  Rover  sailed  away ; 
He  scoured  the  seas  for  many  a  day ; 
And  now,  grown  rich  with  plundered  store, 
He  steers  his  course  for  Scotland's  shore. 

So  thick  a  haze  o'erspreads  the  sky. 
They  can  not  see  the  sun  on  high ; 
The  wind  hath  blown  a  gale  all  day; 
At  evening  it  hath  died  away. 

On  the  deck  the  Rover  takes  his  stand ; 
So  dark  it  is,  they  see  no  land. 
Quoth  Sir  Ralph,  "  It  will  be  lighter  soon, 
For  there  is  the  dawn  of  the  rising  moon." 

"Canst  hear,"  said  one,  "the  breakers  roar? 
For  methinks  we  should  be  near  the  shore." 
"  Now  where  we  are  I  can  not  tell, 
But  I  wish  we  could  hear  the  Inchcape  Bell." 

They  hear  no  sound;  the  swell  is  strong; 
Though  the  wind  hath  fallen,  they  drift  along, 
Till  the  vessel  strikes  with  a  shivering  shock : 
"  O  Christ  I  it  is  the  Inchcape  rock  I  " 

Sir  Ralph  the  Rover  tore  his  hair; 
He  cursed  himself  in  his  despair; 
The  waves  rush  in  on  every  side; 
The  ship  is  sinking  beneath  the  tide. 

But,  even  in  his  dying  fear. 
One  dreadful  sound  could  the  Rover  hear — 
A  sound  as  if,  with  the  Inchcape  Bell, 
The  Devil  below  was  ringing  his  knell. 

Robert  Southey, 


Toi'iCAi.  Outline. 

Introduction. — The  dead  calm — no  wind  to  stir  a  sail,  nor  wave  to 
move  the  Inchcape  Bell.     The  bell — placed  where,  how,  by  whom? 


TRANSFORMATION  OF  ELEMENTS. 


69 


Discussion. 


Sir  Ralph  the  Rover,  idly  pacing  his  deck,  sees  in  the 

distance  the  Inchcape  float. 
His  merry,  wicked  mood  prompts  him  to  plague  the 

good  Abbot. 
At  his  command,  his  men  row  him  to  the  rock;  over 

the  boat  he  bends,  and  cuts  the  bell  from  the  buoy. 
Sir  Ralph  sails  away  ;  he  scours  the  seas  for  many  a  day. 
Rich  in  ill-got  store,  he  turns  his  craft  homeward  to 

Scotland. 
Night  comes  on  in  darkness  and  in  storm ;  the  vessel 

drifts  before  the  wind. 
They  hear  the  breakers  roar,  but  no  sound  of  bell  tells 

them  of  their  danger. 
There  comes  a  fearful  shock ;  the  ship  has  struck  the 

Inchcape  Rock. 
The  Rover  curses  himself  in  his  wild  despair;  and,  as 

the  waves  run  over  the  sinking  ship,  he,  in  dying 

fear,  fancies  he  hears  the  Inchcape  Bell,  sounding 

forth  his  doom. 


Conclusion. — 


REPRODUCTION  IV. 

SELFISH    SORROW. 

The  house  lay  snug  as  a  robin's  nest 

Beneath  its  sheltering  tree. 
And  a  field  of  flowers  was  toward  the  west, 

And  toward  the  east  the  sea, 
Where  a  belt  of  weedy  and  wet  black  sand 
Was  always  pushing  in  to  the  land. 

And  with  her  face  away  from  the  sun 

And  toward  the  sea  so  wild, 
The  grandam  sat,  and  spun  and  spun. 

And  never  heeded  the  child, 
So  wistfully  waiting  beside  her  chair, 
More  than  she  heeded  the  bird  of  the  air. . 


70  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Fret  and  fret,  and  spin  and  spin, 
With  her  face  the  way  of  the  sea : 

And  whether  the  tide  were  out  or  in, 
A  sighing,  "  Woe  is  me !  " 

In  spite  of  the  waiting  and  wistful  eyes 

Pleading  so  sweetly  against  the  sighs. 

And  spin,  spin,  and  fret,  fret, 
And  at  last  the  day  was  done, 

And  the  light  of  the  fire  went  out  and  met 
The  light  o'  the  setting  sun. 

"  It  will  be  a  stormy  night — ah  me  !  " 

Sighed  the  grandam,  looking  at  the  sea. 

"  Oh,  no,  it  is  n't  a-going  to  rain  !  " 

Cries  the  dove-eyed  little  girl, 
Pressing  her  cheek  to  the  window-pane 

And  pulling  her  hair  out  of  curl. 
But  the  grandam  answered  with  a  sigh, 
Just  as  she  answered  the  cricket's  cry. 

"  If  it  rains,  let  it  rain  ;  we  shall  not  drown  !  " 
Says  the  child,  so  glad  and  gay; 

"  The  leaves  of  the  aspen  are  blowing  down ; 
A  sign  of  fair  weather,  they  say  !  " 

And  the  grandam  moaned,  as  if  the  sea 

Were  beating  her  life  out,  "Woe  is  me!" 

The  heart  of  the  dove-eyed  little  girl 

Began  in  her  throat  to  rise. 
And  she  says,  pulling  golden  curl  upon  curl 

All  over  her  face  and  her  eyes, 
"  I  wish  we  were  out  of  sight  of  the  sea !  " 
And  the  grandam  answered,  "Woe  is  me!" 

The  sun  in  a  sudden  darkness  slid, 

The  winds  began  to  plain. 
And  all  the  flowery  field  was  hid 

With  the  cold  gray  mist  and  the  rain. 
Then  knelt  the  child  on  the  hearth  so  low. 
And  blew  the  embers  all  aglow. 


TRANSFORMATION  OF  ELEMENTS.  7I 

On  one  small  hand  so  lily  white 

She  propped  her  golden  head, 
And  lying  along  the  rosy  light, 

She  took  her  book  and  read  : 
And  the  grandam  heard  her  laughter  low, 
As  she  rocked  in  the  shadows  to  and  fro. 

At  length  she  put  her  spectacles  on, 

And  drew  the  book  to  her  knee  : 
"And  does  it  tell,"  she  said,  "about  John, 

My  lad  who  was  lost  at  sea?" 
"Why,  no,"  says  the  child  turning  face  about, 
"  'Tis  a  fairy  tale;  shall  I  read  it  out  ?" 

The  grandam  lowlier  bent  upon 

The  page  as  it  lay  on  her  knee : 
"No,  not  if  it  doesn't  tell  about  John," 

She  says,  "who  was  lost  at  sea." 
And  the  little  girl,  with  a  saddened  face. 
Shut  her  hair  in  the  leaves  to  keep  the  place. 

And  climbing  up  and  over  the  chair. 

The  way  that  her  sweet  heart  led, 
She  put  one  arm  so  round  and  fair 

Like  a  crown,  on  the  old  gray  head. 
"So,  child,"  says  the  grandam — keeping  on 
With  her  thoughts — "  your  book  doesn't  tell  about  John  ?" 

"No,  ma'am,  it  tells  of  a  fairy  old  , 

Who  lived  in  a  daffodil  bell. 
And  who  had  a  heart  so  hard  and  cold 

That  she  kept  the  dews  to  sell ; 
And  when  a  butterfly  wanted  a  drink. 
How  much  did  she  ask  him,  do  you  think?" 

"O  foolish  child,  I  can  not  tell. 

May  be  a  crown,  or  so." 
"But  the  fairy  lived  in  a  daffodil  bell, 

And  couldn't  hoard  crowns,  you  know ! " 
And  the  grandam  answered — her  thought  joined  on 
To  the  old  thought — "  Not  a  word  about  John  ?" 


•J2  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

"But,  grandam" — "Nay,  for  pity's  sake 

Don't  vex  me  about  your  crown. 
But  say  if  the  ribs  of  a  ship  should  break 

And  the  ship's  crew  all  go  down 
Of  a  night  like  this,  how  long  it  would  take 
For  a  strong-limbed  lad  to  drown  !  " 

"But,  grandam" — "  Nay,  have  done,"  she  said, 

"With  your  fairy  and  her  crown! 
Besides,  your  arm  upon  my  head 

Is  heavy ;  get  you  down  I  " 
"  O  ma'am,  I  'm  so  sorry  to  give  you  a  pain  !  " 
And  the  child  kissed  the  wrinkled  face  time  and  again. 

And  then  she  told  the  story  through 

Of  the  fairy  of  the  dell. 
Who  sold  God's  blessed  gift  of  the  dew 

When  it  wasn't  hers  to  sell. 
And  who  shut  the  sweet  light  all  away 
With  her  thick  black  wings,  and  pined  all  day. 

And  how  at  last  God  struck  her  blind. 

The  grandam  wiped  a  tear, 
Andthen  she  said,  "  I  shouldn't  mind 

If  you  read  to  me  now,  my  dear !  " 
And  the  little  girl,  with  a  wondering  look. 
Slipped  her  golden  hair  from  the  leaves  of  the  book. 

And  the  grandam  pulled  her  down  to  her  knee, 

And  pressed  her  close  in  her  arm, 
And  kissing  her,  said,  "  Run  out  and  see 

If  there  isn't  a  lull  in  the  storm. 
I  think  the  moon,  or  at  least  some  star, 
Must  shine,  and  the  wind  grows  faint  and  far." 

Next  day  again  the  grandam  spun, 

And  oh,  how  sweet  were  the  hours! 
For  she  sat  at  the  window  toward  the  sun, 

And  next  the  field  of  flowers. 
And  never  looked  at  the  long  gray  sea. 
Nor  sighed  for  her  lad  that  was  lost,  "Ah,  me!" 

Alice  Gary. 


TRANSFORMATION   OF   ELEMENTS.  73 


The  Preparation  of  a  Topical  Outline. 

The  pupil  is  now  required  to  make  his  own  topical  out- 
Hne.  Such  an  outHne  should  be  made  with  every  Repro- 
duction before  attempting  to  give  the  story  in  other  words. 

Observe  carefully  the  following  directions  for  making  an 
outline: 

1.  Search  your  material  for  leading  thoughts, — these  will 
form  the  general  topics. 

2.  Make  as  few  topics  as  possible ;  raise  nothing  to  the 
rank  of  a  topic  which  may  properly  stand  under  one  already 
found. 

3.  Make  each  topic  complete  in  itself;  no  two  topics 
should  cover  the  same  ground ;  no  one  topic  disguised  in 
different  words  should  appear  twice. 

4.  A  general  topic  may  consist  of  sub-topics  arranged 
under  it. 

5.  Be  careful  to  consider  the  order  of  the  topics  ;  no  point 
to  the  clear  understanding  of  which  some  other  point  is 
necessary,  should  precede  that  other. 

6.  The  list  of  topics  should  give  a  clear  conception  of  the 
whole  subject. 

REPRODUCTION  V. 

ON  THE   DEATH   OF  A   FAVORITE  CAT,    DROWNED   IN  A  TUB 
OF    GOLDFISHES. 

'TwAS  on  a  lofty  vase's  side, 
Where  China's  gayest  art  had  dyed 

The  azure  flowers  that  blow, 
Demurest  of  the  tabby  kind, 
The  pensive  Selima,  reclined, 

Gazed  on  the  lake  below. 

Rhet.— 7. 


74  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Her  conscious  tail  her  joy  declared; 
The  fair  round  face,  the  snowy  beard, 

The  velvet  of  her  paws, 
Her  coat  that  with  the  tortoise  vies, 
Her  ears  of  jet,  and  emerald  eyes, 

She  saw,  and  purred  applause. 

Still  had  she  gazed,  but,  midst  the  tide. 
Two  angel  forms  were  seen  to  glide, 

The  Genii  of  the  stream  : 
Their  scaly  armor's  Tyrian  hue. 
Through  richest  purple,  to  the  view 

Betrayed  a  golden  gleam. 

The  hapless  nymph  with  wonder  saw : 
A  whisker  first,  and  then  a  claw, 

With  many  an  ardent  wish. 
She  stretched  in  vain  to  reach  the  prize: 
What  female  heart  can  gold  despise  ? 

What  Cat's  averse  to  fish? 

Presumptuous  maid  !  with  looks  intent. 
Again  she  stretched,  again  she  bent, 

Nor  knew  the  gulf  between : 
(Malignant  Fate  sat  by  and  smiled) 
The  slippery  verge  her  feet  beguiled ; 

She  tumbled  headlong  in. 

Eight  times  emerging  from  the  flood. 
She  mewed  to  every  watery  god 

Some  speedy  aid  to  send. 
No  dolphin  came,  no  Nereid  stirred. 
Nor  cruel  Tom  or  Susan  heard : 

A  favorite  has  no  friend. 

From  hence,  ye  Beauties!  undeceived, 
Know  one  false  step  is  ne'er  retrieved. 

And  be  with  caution  bold: 
Not  all  that  tempts  your  wandering  eyes 
And  heedless  hearts,  is  lawful  prize. 

Nor  all  that  glistens,  gold. 

Thomas  Gray. 


TRANSFORMATION   OF    ELEMENTS.  75 


DE  VEL  0PM ENT  I. 

The  exercise  called  Development  is  designed  to  give  prac- 
tice in  original  composition.  In  the  following  selection 
much  that  the  imagination  can  supply  has  been  omitted. 
For  example,  we  might  tell  ivJio  th'e  little  girl  is ;  we  might 
tell  something  of  her  home  at  this  glad  Christmas  time; 
whose  kind  hands  tucked  her  snugly  in  bed ;  wJlo  bade  her 
close  her  eyes  in  sleep ;  what  gifts  she  desired  from  Santa 
Claus ;  the  contents  of  the  stocking,  etc.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  keep  strictly  to  the  statements ;  they  may  be  varied 
to  suit  the  story  as  you  prefer  to  state  it.  Be  careful  to 
supply  all  that  is  needed  to  make  a  eonnecteei  story ;  avoid 
introducing  anything  not  consistent  with  every  other  part; 
and  develop  the  '^2x\.'s>  proportionately . 

CHRISTMAS. 

They  put  me  in  the  great  spare  bed,  and  there  they  bade  me  sleep: 
I  must  not  stir;  I  must  not  wake;  I  must  not  even  peep! 
Right  opposite  that  lonely  bed,  my  Christmas  stocking  hung ; 
While  near  it,  waiting  for  the  morn,  my  Sunday  clothes  were  flung. 

I  counted  softly,  to  myself,  to  ten,  and  ten  times  ten, 
And  went  through  all  the  alphabet,  and  then  began  again ; 
1  repeated  that  Fifth  Reader  piece — a  poem  called  "Repose," 
And  tried  a  dozen  other  ways  to  fall  into  a  doze — 

When  suddenly  the  room  grew  light.     I  heard  a  soft,  strong  bound— 
'Twas  Santa  Claus,  I  felt  quite  sure,  but  dared  not  look  around. 
'Twas  nice  to  know  that  he  was  there,  and  things  were  going  rightly, 
And  so  I  took  a  little  nap,  and  tried  to  smile  politely. 

"Ho!  merry  Christmas!"  cried  a  voice;  I  felt  the  bed  a-rocking; 
'Twas  daylight — Brother  Bob  was  up !  and  oh,  that  splendid  stocking! 

Bessie  Hill,  in  St.  Nicholas. 


CHAPTER  V. 


CON'CORD. 


Concord  is  derived  from  the  Latin  concordia,  and  signi- 
fies agreement. 

The  process  called  Concord  enters  very  largely  into  all 
inflected  languages — languages  in  which  the  forms  of  the 
words  show  their  mutual  relations.  In  all  such  languages, 
concord  means  the  adjustment  of  words  to  one  another 
chiefly  by  correspondence  of  form.  The  Latin,  Greek, 
French,  Italian,  German,  and  other  inflectional  tongues, 
possess  this  correspondence  of  form  in  a  high  degree; 
modern  luiglish,  on  the  other  hand,  possesses  it  only  to  a 
very  limited  extent.  In  our  language,  inflection  consists 
mainly  in  the  forms  of  the  pronouns,  the  possessive  case 
of  nouns,  and  a  few  forms  of  the  verb ;  hence  concord,  in 
English  discourse,  has  also  reference  to  the  principles  regu- 
lating the  proper  conjunction  of  words. 

The  following  rules  and  examples  illustrate  the  leading 
requirements  of  Concord : 

Rule  I. —  The  subject  of  a  sentence  or  of  a  proposition 
should  have  the  nouii)iative  form.     Thus: 

"James  and  /came  home,"  not,  "James  and  ;;/^." 
"There  is  a  child  iiiJio  I   think  deserves  encouragement,"  not, 
"There  is  a  child  whom  I  think,"  etc. 

"  He  was  bv  nature  less  ready  than  she^  not,  "than  her." 
(76) 


CONCORD. 


n 


"As  mad  as  they,''  not,  "as  them.'" 

"These  men,  no  matter  who  spoke  or  who  was  addressed,"  not, 
"whom  was  addressed." 

"I  will  question  whoever-  stands  at  the  gate,"  not,  "whomever 
stands,"  etc. 

"Close  to  him  was  a  strange,  unearthly  figure,  who  Gabriel  felt 
at  once  was  no  being  of  this  world,"  not,  "whom  Gabriel  felt,"  etc. 

Rule  II.  —  The  object  of  an  action  or  of  a  preposition  should 
Itave  the  objective  form. 

Violations  of  this  rule  are  frequent  in  the  use  of  pronouns 
that  are  subject  to  a  change  of  form. 

"  Whom  are  you  speaking  to?"  not,"  Who  are  you  speaking  to?" 

"  Whom  servest  thou  imder?"  not,  "  Who,"  etc. 

"You  can  keep  this  letter  and  show  it  to  whomever  you  like," 
not,  "whoever"  etc. 

"  Them  that  honor  me  I  will  honor,"  not,  "  They"  etc. 

"  Whom  do  you  think  I  saw  yesterday?"  not,  "  Who,"  etc. 

"Him  that  confesseth  me  I  will  confess,"  not,  "He,"  etc. 

"Thee,  Nature,  partial  Nature,  I  arraign,"  not,  "Thou,"  etc. 

"Whom  should  I  meet  the  other  day  but  my  old  friend.-'"  not, 
"  Who  should  I  meet,"  etc. 

Rule  III.  —  In  an  abridged  proposition,  if  the  verb  be 
changed  to  an  infinitive  complement,  the  subject  of  the  comple- 
ment should  be  in  the  objective  case.     Thus : 

Let  htm  speak. 

Let  lis  go. 

For  me  to  hope  for  something  better  seems  idle. 

I  believe  him  to  be  an  honest  man. 

Note  the  following  errors: 

Let  he  who  made  thee,  answer  that. 

Let  they  who  raise  the  spell,  beware  the  Fiend. 

Will  this  matter  bring  both  he  and  /  to  give  up  the  lady  ? 

Did  she  ask  you  and  /  to  come  ? 


jrS  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Rule  IV. —  In  an  abridged  proposition,  if  the  verb  be 
changed  to  a  participial  non)i,  the  snbjcct  should  be  changed 
to  the  possessive.     Thus : 

I  am  opposed  to  your  going. 

His  having  done  his  duty  was  a  sufficient  reward. 
The  kings  persisting  in  such  designs  was  the  height  of  folly. 
This   did   not   prevent   Napoleon  s  being  forced  to  abdicate  the 
throne. 

Correct  the  following : 

I  did  not  object  to  liini  helping  me. 
He  had  no  knowledge  of  his  wife  being  there. 
They  have  hope  oi  John  being  elected  sheriff. 
Instead  of  the  ;«a«  coming  with  all  haste,  he  loitered  on  the  road 
several  days.* 

Rule  V. — A  noioi  or  pronoun  used  as  the  conipletnent  of 
an  intransitive  or  a  passive  verb  must  be  in  the  nominative 
case.     Thus : 

This  is  he.  Who  do  you  think  it  is? 

He  became  a  scholar.  Let  him  be  tulio  he  may. 

He  shall  be  called  John.  I  do  not  know  who  they  were. 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  following: 

I  think  that  it  is  him. 

This  sly  creature,  my  brother  says,  is  me. 

Whom  do  men  say  that  I  am  ? 

If  there  is  one  more  infamous  than  another,  it  is  him. 

Rule  VI. — A  no7in  or  pivnojin  folloivitig  the  infinitive  of 
the  verb  ''be"  or  of  any  other  copulative  verb,  must  be  in  the 


*NoTE. — There  has  been  much  discussion  and  disagreement  among  gram- 
marians as  to  whether  the  participle  should  be  preceded  by  the  possessive  case ; 
yet  this  construction  has  the  sanction  of  the  best  authors,  and  is  almost  uniformly 
adopted.  Doubtless  the  sense  can  often  be  better  expressed  by  a  clause  contain- 
ing a  finite  verb ;  as,  "  There  was  convincing  proof  of  his  being  the  thief"  changed 
to,  "  There  was  convincing  proof  that  he  was  the  thief."  The  phrase,  however,  is 
briefer,  and  is  often  needed  to  express  a  thought  by  means  of  a  simple  sentence. 


CONCORD.  79 

same  case  as  the  subject  of  the  verb  whicJi  it  folloivs ;  that  is, 
such  verbs  require  the  same  case  after  them  as  before  them. 
Thus: 

I  did  not  suppose  //  to  be  /«';;;  [objective]. 
He  thought  it  to  be  me. 
IV/io/n  do  you  think  //  to  be? 

Rule  VII. — A  noun  or  prono^m  in  appositioi  is  put  in  the 
same  case  as  the  noun  it  modifies.     Thus : 

Will  you  dishonor  your  mother,  her  who  is  your  best  friend  ? 
Ask  the  7nurderer,  him  who  has  steeped  his  hands  in  the  blood  of 
another. 

I  saw  Mrs.  Brown  to-day,  her  that  was  Mary  Jones. 

Rule  VIII. — Pronojuis  must  agree  luith  their  antecedents 
in  getider,  persoji,  and  mnnber. 

The  following  directions  must  be  carefully  observed: 

1 .  Two  or  more  singular  antecedents  connected  by  '  *  and  " 
require  a  pronoun  in  the  plural  number;  as,  "James  and  I 
study  our  lessons";  "He  sought  wealth  and  fame,  but 
they  eluded  him." 

2.  Two  or  more  singular  antecedents  connected  by  "or" 
or  "nor"  should  be  represented  by  a  pronoun  in  the  sin- 
gular number;  as  ' '  Neither  the  man  nor  the  boy  was  in  his 
place";   "If  you  have  a  pencil  or  a  pen,  bring  it  to  me." 

3.  A  collective  noun,  denoting  unity,  must  have  a  pro- 
noun in  the  singular;  as,  "The  class  was  in  its  room"; 
"The  men  of  Nineveh  shall  rise  in  judgment  with  this  gen- 
eration, and  shall  condemn  //. " 

4.  A  noun  of  multitude  requires  a  pronoun  in  the  plural ; 
as,  "The  public  are  requested  to  enter  their  names  in  the 
book"  ;  "  He  would  not  suffer  his  people  to  forget,  he  would 
not  suffer  them  to  hope." 


80  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

5.  The  words  o)ic,  each,  every,  either,  neither,  take  a  pro- 
noun in  the  singular;  as,  "Every  man  should  attend  to  his 
own  business";  "Each  of  the  sexes  should  keep  within  its 
particular  bounds";  "Both  sisters  were  uncomfortable 
enough.  Each  felt  for  the  other,  and,  of  course,  for  he)-- 
selfr 

Rule  IX. — A  verb  imist  agree  with  its  subject  in  person 
and  number. 

In  the  agreement  of  verbs  with  their  subjects,  primary 
regard  must  be  paid  to  the  meaning.  We  may  have  a 
singular  meaning  in  a  plural  form,  and  a  plural  meaning  in 
a  singular  form.  If  the  meaning  is  singular,  the  verb 
agrees  with  it  in  the  singular ;  if  the  meaning  is  plural,  the 
verb  must  be  plural  in  form. 

The  following  are  correct: 

Why  is  dust  and  ashes  proud  ? 
The  wages  of  sin /j  death. 
Ethics  with  atheism  is  impossible. 
The  majority  are  on  their  way  home. 

A  group  of  fine  young  children  were  growing  up  about  him. 
With  Thee,  a  thousand  years  is  as  one  day. 
Two  shillings  is  the  fare. 

The  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tides  is  now  understood. 
Nor  heaven  nor  earth  has  been  at  peace  to-night. 
A'ine  tenilis  of  every  man's  happiness  depends  upon  his  reception 
among  his  fellows  in  society. 

One  of  the  wisest  men  that  have  lived  in  this  century. 

Rule  X. — /;/  tJie  use  of  irregular  verbs,  be  careful  to  dis- 
tinguish the  past  tense  from  the  perfect  participle. 

No  mistake  is  more  common  than  the  confusion  of  these 
parts  of  the  verb,  so  frequently  the  same,  and  yet  in  many 
instances  different. 


CONCORD.  8l 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  use  of  the  past  tense  and  per- 
fect participle  in  the  following  sentences: 

I  wish  I  had  chose  a  difterent  seat. 

I  have  wrote  for  the  books,  but  they  have  not  come. 

The  lady  sung  very  sweetly,  and  she  has  sang  that  song  before. 

I  seen  him  when  he  come  home  yesterday. 

He  has  rose  from  the  ranks  to  be  a  major-general. 

My  book  was  stole  and  my  slate  is  broke. 

He  done  it  at  my  request. 

He  run  a  great  risk. 

He  has  mistook  his  true  interest. 

The  cloth  was  wove  of  the  finest  wool. 

She  would  have  went. 

Rule  XI.  —  Tlic  time  indicated  by  the  tense  infections 
should  ham  winze  zvith  the  time  indicated  by  other  parts  of  the 
sentence. 

Thus  we  say:  "I  saw  him  last  week, '^  not,  "I  have  seen 
him  last  tveek" ;  "We  were  afraid  he  would  fall,"  not, 
*' IV  on  Id  have  fallen" ;  "He  has  been  tardy  every  day  this 
week,"  not,  "  zaas  tardy";  "I  will  see  that  he  do  it,"  not, 
"that  he  does  it." 

1.  Present  Tense. — When  the  act  or  condition  ex- 
pressed by  an  infi)iitive  is  subsequent  in  time  to  that  expressed 
by  the  principal  verb,  the  infinitive  must  be  in  the  present 
tense.  Thus  verbs  expressing  hope,  fear,  expectation,  in- 
tention, obligation,  etc.,  should  be  followed  by  i\\e present 
infinitive;  as,  "I  intended  to  go,"  not,  ''to  have  gone" ;  "I 
should  have  liked  to  see  him, "  not,  ' '  to  have  seen  him  ";  "I 
meant  to  come,"  not,  ''to  have  come";  "I  should  have 
thought  it  wrong  to  interfere,"  not,   "to  have  interfered." 

2.  Present  Perfect  Tense. — When  the  dependent  in- 
finitive expresses  an  act  or  condition  prior  to  that  of  the 
principal    verb,    it    must    be  in  the  present  perfect  tense. 


82  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Thus:  "  He  is  believed  to  have  ivritten  the  'Letters  of  Ju- 
nius'"; "Columbus  is  said  to  have  discovered  America"; 
"  He  is  known  to  have  used  every  artifice." 

Rule  XH. — Existing  facts,  andzvhat  is  ahuaystnie,  shoidd 
he  expressed  in  the  present  tense.     Thus : 

"  He  maintained  that  only  the  virtuous  «r^  happy, "not,"  W(fr<f  happy." 
"  It  lias  been  declared  that  the  earth  does  not  move  about  the  sun," 

not,  "  did  not  move." 

"The  ancients  believed  that  'the  earth  is  flat,'"  not,  "was  flat." 
"It  was  hard  for   some  to  understand  what  conscience  is,"  not, 

"what  conscience  was." 

"The  Stoics  believed  that  'all  crimes  arc  equal,'  "  not,  "  were  e(\na.\." 

Rule  XHI. — /;/  nsing  auxiliaries,  the  auxiliary  shoidd 
harmonize  luith  the  idea  to  be  expressed. 

"May"  is  the  sign  of  possibility,  permission,  or  desire; 
"can,"  of  ability  within  one's  self;  "must,"  of  necessity; 
"shall"  in  the  first  person,  and  "will"  in  the  second  and 
third,  are  signs  of  futurity.  "Will"  in  the  first  person  is 
the  sign  of  resolution  or  determination;  "shall"  in  the 
second  and  third  persons  denotes  obligation.  "Should," 
the  past  tense  o{  shall,  and  "would,"  the  past  tense  of 
will,  are  used,  especially  in  dependent  clauses,  after  a  past 
tense,  as  "shall  "  and  "will"  are  used  after  a  present  or  a 
future  tense. 

Justify  the  uses  of  shall  and  icill  in  these  sentences: 

Will  you  speak  to  him,  or  shall  I  ? 

Shall  my  son  go,  or  will  you  send  yours  ? 

I  shall  go  to  Europe  next  summer. 

You  shall  not  go ;  we  will  not  allow  it. 

Shall  I  see  you  at  the  convention  .•' 

Shall  you  be  at  home  to-morrow  ? 

You  will,  I  suppose,  remain  at  home? 

Shall  he  accompany  you?     Will  he  accompany  you? 


CONCORD.  83 

Correct  the  errors  in  each  of  the  following,  and  give  a 
reason  for  the  change: 

Will  I  talk  to  you  ? 

If  we  do  wrong,  we  will  be  punished. 

Should  you  like  me  to  go  with  you  ? 

When  will  we  meet  again  ? 

I  suppose  you  shall  be  here  next  week. 

We  shall  assist  him  if  he  desires  it. 

We  would  be  glad  if  you  should  favor  us. 

He  ought  to  have  known  that  I  would  be  ruined. 

Could  you  come  to  visit  us  next  week  ? 

You  shall  be  hurt,  if  you  ride  that  vicious  horse. 

Rule  XIV. — DistbigiiisJi  bctzvccn  the  indicative  and  the 
subjunctive  forms  of  the  verb. 

I.  Subjunctive  Mode. — The  case  most  suited  to  the 
subjunctive  is  the  expression  of  an  event  absolutely  un- 
known, as  being  still  in  the  future. 

The  present  subjunctive  is  used: 

To  express  a.  future  contingency;  as,  "If  he  be  there,  I 
will  speak  to  him";  "If  he  continue  to  study,  he  will  im- 
prove "  ;   "I  am  to  second  Ion  if  he  fail. " 

The  past  subjunctive  is  used: 

(i)  To  express  a  supposition  implying  the  contrary ;  as, 
"Even  zvere  I  disposed,  I  could  not  gratify  the  reader"; 
"If  I  had  the  book,  it  should  be  at  your  service." 

(2)  To  express  a  mere  supposition  with  indefinite  time; 
as,  "Unless  I  ivere  prepared,  I  would  not  undertake  the 
case";  "If  he  luere  to  go,  he  would  not  find  what  he 
seeks." 

(3)  To  express  a  ivish  or  desire ;  as,  "  O  that  he  zvej'e 
wise  !  "    "I  wish  I  weir  rich." 


84  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

The  past  perfect  subjunctive  is  used: 

To  express,  as  past,  a  supposition  implying  the  contrary ; 
thus,  "If  he  had  repented  [which  he  did  not],  I  should 
have  forgiven  him." 

2.  Indicative  Mode. —  A  conditional  circumstance  as- 
sumed as  ^  fact,  or  as  a  mere  uncertainty,  requires  the  in- 
dicative mode.  Thus:  "If  he  ivas  there,  I  did  not  see 
him  "  ;  "If  this  man  is  innocent,  he  ought  to  be  liberated  " ; 
"If  the  boy  is  sick,  he  should  be  excused." 

Correct  these  sentences,  and  give  reason  for  the  change : 

I  wish  I  was  at  home. 

If  he  know  his  lesson,  he  may  go  out  to  play. 

Was  gold  more  abundant,  it  would  be  of  less  value. 

It  is  cold,  though  the  sky  be  clear. 

Lock  the  door  lest  a  robber  enters. 

If  any  man  were  unjustly  censured,  it  is  he. 

We  shall  start  now  unless  it  rain. 

If  I  was  he  I  would  accept  your  offer. 

If  he  is  but  discreet,  he  will  succeed. 

Take  care  that  the  horse  does  not  run  away. 

Rui.E  XV. — Distinguish  between  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

These  are  often  confounded  by  using  an  adjective  for  an 
adverb,  or  by  using  an  adverb  for  an  adjective. 

1.  To  express  tivu\  place,  degree,  or  ma)iner,  an  adverb 
should   be  used;    as,    "I   suffer  greatly'' ;    "He   ran  vcjy' 
siviftlyr 

2.  To  express  quality,  an  adjective  should  be  used ;  as, 
"The  flowers  smell  sweet'' ;  "She  looks  beautiful" ;  "He 
feels  strong." 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  following,  and  give  reason  for 
the  correction: 


CONCORD.  85 

He  acted  agreeable  to  his  promise. 

That  music  sounds  very  sweetly. 

He  was  pretty  near  tired  out. 

He  was  dressed  fine,  but  he  acted  fearful  bad. 

That  was  a  remarkable  fine  sermon. 

The  work  goes  on  slower  than  we  expected. 

Her  new  dress  looked  very  prettily. 

The  people  are  miserable  poor,  but  tolerable  contented. 

He  who  knowingly  does  wrong,  must  feel  contemptibly. 

Questions  are  easier  proposed  than  rightly  answered. 

Rule  XVI. — In  general,  correspondent  parts  of  a  sentence 
should  be  similarly  constructed. 

This  principle  is  violated  : 

(i)  In  the  union  of  ancient  and  modern  forms  (espe- 
cially of  verbs  and  of  pronouns)  ;  as,  "  He  givetJi  [gives] 
us  good  advice  whenever  he  comes  to  see  us" ;  "My  father 
loveth  [loves]  flowers,  but  he  loves  his  children  better"; 
"Honor  tJiy  father  and  thy  mother,  \{  you  would  [thou 
wouldst]  be  blessed." 

(2)  In  the  union  of  different  modes  ;  as,  "  If  a  man  have 
a  hundred  sheep,  and  one  of  them  goes  [go]  astray,"  etc.  ; 
"Had  I  spoken  to  him,  and  he  ivould  have  replied''  [had 
replied]. 

(3)  In  the  union  of  auxiliary  with  simple  forms;  as, 
"This  opinion  never  Jias  [prevailed]  and  never  can  pre- 
vail" ;  "He  does  not  [live  there]  and  Jias  not  lived  there 
since  his  election." 

(4)  In  the  union  of  plural  with  singular  forms;  as,  "I 
do  not  doubt  tJiee ;  but  ye  do  [thou  dost]  not  try  to  avoid 
the  appearance  of  evil." 

(5)  In  the  union  of  dissimilar  elements  by  co-ordinate 
connectives ;  as,  "  The  delay  was  not  a7i  accident,  but  pre- 
nu'ditated"  [accidental  but  premeditated];    "The  fort  was 


86  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC. 

forced  by  the  treachery  of  the  governor  and  the  hidoloit 
general  to  capitulate  within  a  week  "  [indolence  of  the]  etc.; 
"He  embraced  the  cause  of  liberty /h:/;///>/  and  pursued  it 
ivitliout  rcsolutio7i"  [irresolutely]  ;  "The  act  was  sinful,  but 
it  was  aminiitted  ivithoiit  intention  "  [unintentional]. 

EXERCISE  XXVIII. 

Direction. — Justify,  or  criticise  and  correct  the  following: 

1.  I  knew  that  you  was  my  father's  friend. 

2.  Ambition  is  one  of  those  passions  that  is  never  satisfied. 

3.  Each  of  the  soldiers  have  received  a  pension. 

4.  Hence  arises  the  following  advantages. 

5.  The  rapidity  of  his  movements  were  much  admired. 

6.  Thou  or  he  may  have  the  book. 

7.  He  laid  down  on  the  road  and  was  almost  froze. 

8.  This  story  by  Dickens  was  began  in  A//  the  Year  Round. 

9.  Night  Thoughts  were  written  by  Young. 

10.  If  he  was  a  year  older  I  would  send  him  to  school. 

11.  If  he  know  anything  he  surely  knows  that  he  can  not  go  un- 
less he  gets  better. 

12.  Thou  art  not  the  trustworthy  person  I  hoped  you  were. 

13.  Time  passes  the  slowest  when  we  are  unemployed. 

14.  I  meant,  when  first  I  came,  to  have  bought  all  Paris. 

15.  If  you  had  have  written,  I  would  have  been  glad  to  have  an- 
swered it. 

16.  I  did  not  suppose  it  to  be  he. 

17.  He  had  done  that  correct,  I  am  sure. 

18.  It  had  been  my  intention  to  have  collected  Keats'  Composi- 
tions. 

19.  The  stars  look  very  brightly,  and  the  wind  blows  coldly. 

20.  This  was  done  conformable  to  your  order. 

21.  A  great  number  of  people  was  at  the  convention. 

22.  Neither  of  these  houses  are  for  sale. 

23.  I  do  not  know  who  I  gave  the  letter  to. 

24.  Is  service  real,  if  we  do  not  know  whom  it  is  we  serve? 

25.  We  may,  and  ought  to  do  good  to  others. 


CONCORD.  87 

26.  My  Lord  Duke's  entertainments  were  both  seldom  and  shabby. 

27.  Everything,  since  that  event,  wore  a  new  aspect. 

28.  He  is  wiser  than  me. 

29.  It  is  not  me  you  are  in  love  with. 

30.  Let  there  be  no  solace  left  for  thou  and  me. 

31.  She  was  neither  better  bred  nor  wiser  than  you  or  me. 

32.  This  paper  should  properly  have  appeared  to-morrow. 

33.  The  following  facts  may  or  have  been  adduced  as  reasons. 

34.  I  do  not  think  any  one  to  blame  for  taking  care  of  their  health. 

35.  During  the  last  century  no  prime  minister  has  become  rich  in 
office. 

36.  We  are  alone,  here 's  none  but  thee  and  I. 

37.  Successful  he  might  have  been,  had  his  horse  been  as  ambi- 
tious as  he. 

38.  Every  one  of  this  grotesque  family  were  the  creatures  of  na- 
tional genius. 

39.  It  is  not  fit  for  such  as  us  to  sit  with  the  rulers  of  the  land. 

40.  It  was  my  intention  to  have  arranged  the  contents  of  this  new 
issue  of  The  Queen  s  English  under  the  parts  of  speech. 

41.  What  should  we  gain  by  it  that  we  should  speedily  become  as 
poor  as  them  ? 

42.  The  richness  of  her  arms  and  apparel  were  conspicuous  in  the 
foremost  rank. 

43.  The  Prince  was  apprehensive  that  Waverley,  if  set  at  liberty, 
might  have  resumed  his  purpose  of  returning  to  England. 

44.  Come  quick  and  do  not  hinder  us. 

45.  We  got  home  safe. 

46.  Open  the  door  wide. 

47.  I  heard  you  were  here,  therefore  I  have  come. 

48.  Rapid  rivers  are  seldom  if  ever  deep. 

49.  How  many  sounds  have  each  of  the  vowels? 

50.  Napoleon  wished  to  have  made  Lucien  king  of  Spain. 

51.  Nothing  but  vain  and  foolish  pursuits  delight  some  persons. 

52.  You  think  you  shall  go  to  the  city,  then? 

53.  One  of  the  most  trying  things  that  is  known  to  life,  is  to  suffer 
alone  and  unjustly. 

54.  Let  he  and  you  consider  the  question  before  complying. 

55.  I  regarded  thee  as  my  friend,  but  now  I  doubt  your  friendship, 

56.  They  naturally  prefer  to  stand  where  they  would  have  long 
ago,  if  it  were  not  for  their  mistakes. 


88  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

EXERCISES  IN  COMPOSITION. 

REPRODUCTION  FT! 

THE    PET-LAMB. 

The  dew  was  falling  fast,  the  stars  began  to  blink; 

I  heard  a  voice;  it  said,  "Drink,  pretty  creature,  drink!  " 

And,  looking  o'er  the  hedge,  before  me  I  espied 

A  snow-white  mountain-lamb  with  a  Maiden  at  its  side. 

Nor  sheep  nor  kine  were  near;  the  lamb  was  all  alone, 
And  by  a  slender  cord  was  tethered  to  a  stone; 
With  one  knee  on  the  grass  did  the  little  Maiden  kneel, 
While  to  that  mountain-lamb  she  gave  its  evening  meal. 

The  lamb,  while  from  her  hand  he  thus  his  supper  took, 
Seemed  to  feast  with  head  and  ears;  and  his  tail  with  pleasure  shook. 
"  Drink,  pretty  creature,  drink,"  she  said  in  such  a  tone 
That  I  almost  received  her  heart  into  my  own. 

'Twas  little  Barbara  Lewthwaite,  a  child  of  beauty  rare! 
I  watched  them  with  delight,  they  were  a  lovely  pair. 
Now  with  her  empty  can  the  Maiden  turned  away ; 
But  ere  ten  yards  were  gone  her  footsteps  did  she  stay. 

Right  towards  the  lamb  she  looked;  and  from  a  shady  place 
I,  unobserved,  could  sec  the  workings  of  her  face; 
If  Nature  to  her  tongue  could  measured  numbers  bring. 
Thus,  thought  I,  to  her  lamb  that  little  Maid  might  sing: 

"What  ails  thee,  young  One?  what?     Why  pull  so  at  thy  cord? 
Is  it  not  well  with  thee?  well  both  for  bed  and  board? 
Thy  plot  of  grass  is  soft,  and  green  as  grass  can  be; 
Rest,  little  young  One,  rest;  what  is't  that  aileth  thee? 

"What  is  it  thou  wouldst  seek?     What  is  wanting  to  thy  heart? 
Thy  limbs,  are  they  not  strong?     And  beautiful  thou  art: 
This  grass  is  tender  grass;  these  flowers  they  have  no  peers; 
And  that  green  corn  all  day  is  rustling  in  thy  ears! 


CONCORD.  89 

"If  the  sun  be  shining  hot,  do  but  stretch  thy  woolen  chain, 
This  beech  is  standing  by,  its  covert  thou  canst  gain  ; 
For  rain  and  mountain-storms!  the  like  thou  need'st  not  fear, 
The  rain  and  storm  are  things  that  scarcely  can  come  here. 

"  Rest,  little  young  One,  rest;  thou  hast  forgot  the  day 
When  my  father  found  thee  first  in  places  far  away ; 
Many  flocks  were  on  the  hills,  but  thou  wert  owned  by  none, 
And  thy  mother  from  thy  side  forevermore  was  gone. 

"  He  took  thee  in  his  arms,  and  in  pity  brought  thee  home; 
A  blessed  day  for  thee !  then  whither  wouldst  thou  roam  ? 
A  faithful  nurse  thou  hast ;  the  dam  that  did  thee  yean 
Upon  the  mountain-tops  no  kinder  could  have  been. 

"  Thou  know'st  that  twice  a  day  I  have  brought  thee  in  this  can 

Fresh  water  from  the  brook,  as  clear  as  ever  ran ; 

And  twice  in  the  day,  when  the  ground  is  wet  with  dew, 

I  bring  thee  draughts  of  milk,  warm  milk  it  is  and  new. 

"Thy  limbs  will  shortly  be  twice  as  stout  as  they  are  now. 
Then  I  '11  yoke  thee  to  my  cart  like  a  pony  in  the  plow  ; 
My  playmate  thou  shalt  be ;  and  when  the  wind  is  cold 
Our  hearth  shall  be  thy  bed,   our  house  shall  be  thy  fold. 

"  It  will  not,  will  not  rest!— Poor  creature,  can  it  be 

That  'tis  thy  mother's  heart  which  is  working  so  in  thee? 

Things  that  I  know  not  of  belike  to  thee  are  dear. 

And  dreams  of  things  which  thou  canst  neither  see  nor  hear. 

"Alas,  the  mountain-tops  that  look  so  green  and  fair! 
I  've  heard  of  fearful  winds  and  darkness  that  come  there; 
The  httle  brooks  that  seem  all  pastime  and  all  play. 
When  they  are  angry,  roar  like  lions  for  their  prey. 

"  Here  thou  need'st  not  dread  the  raven  in  the  sky; 
Night  and  day  thou  art  safe,— our  cottage  is  hard  by. 
Why  bleat  so  after  me  ?     Why  pull  so  at  thy  chain  ? 
Sleep— and  at  break  of  day  I  will  come  to  thee  again  !  " 

******** 

Wordsworth, 

Rhet.— 8. 


90  ■  'COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


DEVELOPMENT  II. 


NUTTING-TIME. 


The  month  was  October,  the  frosts  had  come  down, 
The  woodlands  were  scarlet  and  yellow  and  brown  ; 
The  harvests  were  gathered,  the  nights  had  grown  chill. 
But  warm  was  the  day  on  the  south  of  the  hill. 

*Twas  there  with  our  bags  and  our  baskets  we  went, 
And  searching  the  dry  leaves  we  busily  bent; 
The  chestnuts  were  big  and  the  beech-nuts  were  small. 
But  both  sorts  are  welcome  to  boys  in  the  fall. 

And  when,  in  the  ashes  beneath  the  bright  flame. 
On  eves  of  November,  with  laughter  and  game, 
The  sweetmeats  are  roasted,  we  recollect  still 
How  fine  was  the  day  on  the  south  of  the  hill. 

H.  I.,  in  St.  Nicholas. 

Tell  how  much  the  nut-gathering  had  been  talked  of,  and 
how  long ;  who  formed  the  party ;  whose  quick  eyes  were 
first  to  spy  the  nuts ;  whose  nimble  fingers  helped  to  fill 
each  basket ;  how  the  squirrels  stared  in  startled  wonder  at 
the  merry  party  whose  voices  broke  the  usual  stillness  of 
the  woods;  how  they  regarded  this  invasion  of  their  rights; 
of  the  journey  home — all  heavily  laden ;  what  is  the  dear- 
est recollection  of  that  happy  day? 


DRVELOPMEXT  IIT. 


AT  THE  SE.\SIDE. 

Heaping  up  the  shining  pebbles, 
Spading  in  the  glistening  sand, 
Buildinjj  fierce  but  mimic  forts 


CONCORD.  QI 

That  from  foes  shall  guard  the  land, 
Making  lovely  landscape  gardens 
That  are  watered  by  the  spray, — 

Ah!  'tis  surely  pleasant, 

On  the  beach  to  play. 

Hand  in  hand  with  merry  playmates 

Wading  where  the  billows  break, 
Swift  their  feet  the  way  retracing, 

Lest  the  waves  their  steps  o'ertake, 
Merry  childish  laughter  pealing 
Out  from  hearts  so  wildly  gay, — 
Ah!  'tis  surely  pleasant, 
On  the  beach  to  play. 

Give  the  names  of  your  playmates  ;  tell  who  is  the  merry, 
daring  leader  in  your  play;  describe  your  gardens  or  the 
forts  you  have  constructed  ;  tell  how  often  the  incoming 
wave  has  kissed  your  retreating  feet ;  the  delightful  sail 
over  the  bright  waters;  give  any  other  amusements  in  which 
you  might  engage  ;  describe  the  feelings  awakened  on  be- 
holding the  awful  grandeur  of  the  ocean. 


DEVELOPMENT  IV. 


TRUST. 

Searching  for  strawberries  ready  to  eat, 
Finding  them  crimson  and  large  and  sweet. 
What  do  you  think  I  found  at  my  feet — 
Deep  in  the  green  hill-side? 

Four  brown  sparrows,  the  cunning  things. 
Feathered  on  back  and  breast  and  wings, 
Proud  with  the  dignity  plumage  brings, 
Opening  their  four  mouths  wide. 


92  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Stooping  lower  to  scan  my  prize, 
Watching  their  motions  with  curious  eyes, 
Dropping  my  berries  in  glad  surprise, 
A  plaintive  sound  I  heard. 

And  looking  up  at  that  mournful  call, 
I  spied  on  a  branch  near  the  old  stone  wall, 
Trembling  and  twittering,  ready  to  fall, 
The  poor  little  mother-bird. 

With  grief  and  terror  her  heart  was  wrung ; 
And  while  to  the  slender  bough  she  clung. 
She  felt  that  the  lives  of  her  birdlings  hung — 
On  a  more  slender  thread. 

"Oh, birdie,"  I  said,  "if  you  only  knew 
That  my  heart  is  tender  and  warm  and  true." 
But  the  thought  that  I  loved  her  birdlings  too 
Never  entered  her  small  brown  head. 

And  so  through  this  world  of  ours  we  go, 
Bearing  our  burdens  of  needless  woe; 
Many  a  heart  beating  heavy  and  slow 
Under  its  load  of  care. 

But,  oh !  if  we  only,  only  knew 
That  God  is  tender  and  warm  and  true. 
And  that  he  loves  us  through  and  through, 
Our  hearts  would  be  lighter  than  air. 

Anonymous. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SYNTHESIS  OF  SENTENCES   INTO  A   PARAGRAPH. 

A  Paragraph  is  a  connected  series  of  sentences,  devel- 
oping a  single  topic. 

In  form,  it  is  distinguished  by  commencing  on  a  new 
line  a  short  distance  from  the  beginning  of  the  line.  The 
sentences  are  then  written  in  close  succession,  until  the  par- 
agraph is  completed. 

In  combining  sentences  into  a  paragraph,  the  following 
directions  should  be  observed : 

1.  Read  carefully  the  various  sentences.  Select  the  lead- 
ing statements,  and  express  them  by  means  of  independent 
propositions ;  the  other  thoughts  should  be  expressed  by 
words,  phrases,  or  clauses, 

2.  Do  not  connect  facts  that  are  unconnected  in  thought, 
into  long,  loose,  compound  sentences  joined  by  amis. 

3.  See  that  each  sentence  has  some  bearing  upon  what 
precedes  it ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  it  expresses  a  thought 
not  given  in  a  preceding  sentence. 

4.  Be  careful,  when  expressing  connection  between  sen- 
tences, to  use  such  conjunctions  as  show  the  correct  rela- 
tion of  the  thoughts.  Where  it  is  necessary  to  express  the 
connection,  such  words  or  phrases  as  and,  but,  therefore, 
since  tiiis  is  so,  furtlicrmore,  again,  so,  li/ceivise,  may  be  used. 
When  the  connection  in  thought  between  successive  senten- 
ces is  either  very  close  or  very  distant,  connectives  may  gen- 
erally be  omitted. 

(93) 


94  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

5.  Aim  at  variety  of  construction  ;  that  is,  do  not  form 
a  succession  of  sentences  of  any  one  kind  ;  but  make  them 
simple,  complex,  or  compound,  as  seems  best  suited  to  the 
purpose.  No  one  kind  of  sentence  is  pre-eminently  the 
best ;  each  kind  has  its  own  peculiar  advantages ;  but  where 
excellence  in  composition  is  aimed  at,  there  should  be  a 
proper  intermixture  of  the  several  kinds. 

The  following  will  illustrate  the  method  of  combining 
sentences  into  a  paragraph : 

A  husbandman  set  a  net  in  his  field. 
He  placed  it  there  to  catch  the  cranes. 
The  cranes  came  to  pluck  up  his  newly-planted  corn. 
The  husbandman  went  to  examine  the  net. 
He  went  to  see  the  cranes  thus  taken. 
A  stork  was  found  among  the  number. 
The  stork  begged  to  be  spared. 
The  stork  begged  to  be  let  go. 
It  professed  to  be  no  crane. 
It  denied  having  eaten  any  of  the  corn. 
It  declared  itself  to  be  a  poor,  innocent  stork,  the  most  pious  and 
dutiful  of  birds. 

It  professed  to  honor  and  succor  its  father  and  mother. 

The  husbandman  would  hear  no  more. 

He  owned  this  to  be  possibly  true  enough. 

He  acknowledged  this  in  his  reply  to  the  stork. 

The  husbandman  knew  one  thing  plainly. 

He  had  caught  the  stork  with  the  destroyers  of  his  crop. 

For  this  the  stork  must  suffer  with  the  company. 

In  such  company  it  had  been  taken. 

Covibiftcd. — A  husbandman  set  a  net  in  his  field  to  catch  the  cranes 
\hat  came  to  pluck  up  his  newly-planted  corn.  When  he  went  to 
examine  the  net,  to  see  what  cranes  he  h.nd  taken,  a  stork  was  found 
among  the  number.  "Spare  me,"  cried  the  stork,  "and  let  me  go. 
I  am  no  crane;  I  have  not  eaten  any  of  your  corn;  I  am  a  poor  in- 
nocent stork — the  most  pious  and  dutiful  of  birds.  I  honor  and  suc- 
cor my  father  and  mother."     But  the  husbandman  would  hear  no 


SYNTHESIS  OF  SENTENCES  INTO  A  PARAGRAPH.  95 

more,  and  replied,  "All  this  may  be  true  enough  ;  but  this  I  plainly 
know,  that  I  have  caught  you  with  those  that  were  destroying  my 
crops,  and  you  must  suffer  with  the  company  in  which  you  were 
taken." — ^sop. 


EXERCISE  XXIX. 

Direction.  —  Combine  the  following  statements  into  well-constructed  sen- 
tences, fonning  a  single  paragraph  : 

1.  The  Mistake  of  a  Life. — A  piece  of  money  was  lying  in  the 
road.  A  young  man  picked  it  up.  He  hoped  he  should  find  another. 
He  kept  his  eyes  fixed  steadily  on  the  ground.  He  did  this  always 
afterward,  as  he  walked  along.  He  did  pick  up  a  good  amount  of 
gold  and  silver.  This  was  in  the  course  of  a  long  life.  He  was  look- 
ing for  money  all  this  time.  The  heavens  were  bright  above  him. 
Nature  was  beautiful  around  him.  He  did  not  see  them.  He  never 
looked  up  from  the  mud  and  filth.  He  sought  treasure  in  them.  He 
died  a  rich  old  man.  He  knew  this  fair  earth,  even  up  to  his  death, 
only  as  a  dirty  road.     He  thought  it  was  to  pick  money  from. 

2.  A  Missionary's  Experience. — I  was  riding  alone  across  one 
of  the  South  Pacific  Islands.  The  night  was  dark  and  rainy.  I  was 
delighted  to  see,  just  ahead,  a  light.  Seemingly,  there  was  a  man 
carrying  a  lighted  torch.  I  shouted  to  my  supposed  companion  to 
wait  a  little.  I  wished  to  get  up  to  him.  I  received  no  reply.  I 
spurred  my  horse.  The  animal  made  its  way  with  difficulty.  The 
mire  was  deep.  I  was  not  a  little  annoyed  to  see  the  light  dancing 
on  and  on.  A  clump  of  trees  now  hid  the -windings  of  the  road.  This 
mocking  companion  seemed  to  dart  through  its  gloomiest  recesses. 
It  moved  in  a  most  inexplicable  manner.  A  long  and  weary  chase 
followed.  The  light  forsook  the  beaten  track.  It  hovered  over  the 
deep  waters  of  a  little  lake  in  that  neighborhood.  I  reached  home 
that  night.  I  related  my  adventure.  The  natives  jestingly  remarked 
upon  the  adventure.  An  elf  had  been  lighting  my  path  with  her  torch. 
I  had  been  chasing  a  Will-o'-the-wisp. 

3.  A  Curious  Insect. — There  is  a  certain  black  beetle.  It  is  fa- 
miliar to  all  dwellers  in  the  country.  It  swims  on  the  surface  of  the 
summer  brook.     It  loves  to  hold  conventions  in  some  quiet  eddy.     It 


96  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

loves  to  spend  the  hours  in  whirling  around.  In  all  manner  of  tangled 
curves.  There  is  one  curious  thing.  It  is  in  the  construction  of  this 
diminutive  insect.  The  insect  possesses  two  pairs  of  eyes.  These 
eyes  are  placed  in  a  peculiar  way.  The  insect  floats  along.  It  is 
enabled  to  have  one  pair  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  other 
pair  is  below  the  surface  of  the  water.  All  these  eyes  are  designed  to 
be  used.  One  pair  is  to  view  things  beneath  the  water.  The  other 
pair  is  to  view  things  above  the  water.  One  pair  looks  out  for  food. 
The  other  pair  looks  out  for  danger  and  for  enjoyment.  The  two  to- 
gether fit  the  insect  for  its  life.  This  life  is  on  the  dividing  line  be- 
tween air  and  water. 

4.  Small  Gardens  in  Devonshire. — Nothing  can  exceed  in  pret- 
tiness  these  gardens  in  Devonshire.  They  are  attached  to  thatched 
cottages.  They  are  frequently  seen  on  the  side  of  a  hill.  They  are 
oftener  at  the  bottom  of  a  hill.  Down  this  hill  a  narrow  road  leads. 
A  rude,  single-arched  stone  bridge.  Here  a  shallow  stream  may 
be  seen  flowing  rapidly.  The  stream  now  and  then  "stickles"  over  a 
pavement.  Pebbles  or  rag-stone.  "Stickles"  is  a  Devonshire  phrase. 
A  little  rill  descends  by  the  side  of  the  lane.  The  rill  descends  close 
to  the  hedge.  The  hedge  is  approached  by  a  broad  stepping-stone 
over  the  rill.  Beyond  the  hedge  is  a  gate  made  of  rough  sticks.  The 
gate  leads  to  the  cottage.  At  a  short  distance  from  the  cottage,  an 
excavation  has  been  cut  in  the  bank.  It  has  been  paved  round  with 
rough  stones.  Into  this  the  water  finds  its  way.  It  makes  its  way 
out  clear  and  sparkling.  This  is  the  cottager's  well.  His  garden  is 
gay  with  flowers.  His  bees  are  placed  on  each  side  of  a  window. 
The  window  is  surrounded  with  honeysuckle,  jessamine,  or  a  flourish- 
ing vine.  The  rustic  porch  is  covered  with  these  or  other  creepers. 
The  gorgeous  hollyhock  may  be  seen  in  perfection.  The  hollyhock 
delights  in  the  rich  red  soil  of  Devonshire.  Giantstocks,  carnations, 
and  china-asters  flourish  from  the  same  cause.  These  make  the  gar- 
den appear  like  Flora's.     It  appears  to  belong  to  Flora  herself. 

Direction.  —  Combine  each  of  the  following  groups  of  statements  into  a 
paragraj)!!,  and  write  on  the  first  line  of  each  paragraph  the  topic  it  develops: 

I.  The  deer  seem  to  foresee  every  change  of  weather.  In  this  re- 
spect they  arc  like  many  other  animals.  At  the  approach  of  a  storm, 
deer  leave  the  higher  hills.  They  descend  to  the  low  grounds.  Some- 
times even  two  days  in  advance  of  the  change.     At  the  approach  of 


SYNTHESIS  OF  SENTENCES  INTO  A  PARAGRAPH.  97 

a  thaw,  they  leave  the  low  grounds.  They  go  to  the  mountains. 
They  never  perish  in  snow-drifts.  In  this,  they  are  not  hke  sheep. 
Not  sheltering  themselves  in  hollows  prevents  their  perishing  in  snow- 
drifts. Keeping  the  bare  ground  prevents  their  perishing.  Further, 
they  eat  the  tops  of  the  heather. 

2.  There  was  at  hand  no  cotton  in  the  seed.  Whitney  went  to 
Savannah  to  procure  some.  He  searched  there  among  warehouses 
and  boats.  He  found  a  small  parcel.  He  carried  it  home.  He  se- 
cluded it  with  himself  in  a  basement-room.  Here  he  set  to  work. 
He  worked  to  devise  and  construct  the  implement  required.  The 
tools  were  rude  and  few.  He  was  constrained  to  make  better  ones. 
He  was  forced  to  draw  his  own  wire.  No  wire  could  be  bought  in 
Savannah.  There  were  but  two  persons  allowed  to  enter  his  work- 
shop. These  were  Mrs.  Greene  and  her  next  friend,  Mr.  Miller.  They 
were,  in  fact,  the  only  ones  having  a  clear  knowledge  of  his  efforts 
and  intentions.  His  mysterious  hammering  and  tinkering  in  that  sol- 
itary cell  were  subjects  of  infinite  curiosity.  They  were  subjects  of 
marvel.  They  were  subjects  of  ridicule.  This  was  among  the  youngei 
members  of  the  family.  He  did  not  interfere  with  their  merriment. 
He  did  not  allow  them  to  interfere  with  his  enterprise.  Before  the 
close  of  the  winter,  his  machine  was  nearly  completed.  Its  success 
was  no  longer  doubtful. 

3.  The  immediate  loss  of  Constantinople  may  be  ascribed  to  a 
bullet.  An  arrow.  This  bullet  or  arrow  pierced  the  gauntlet  of  John 
Justiniani.  The  sight  of  his  blood  appalled  the  courage  of  the  chief. 
The  exquisite  pain  destroyed  his  courage.  His  arms  and  counsels 
were  the  firmest  ramparts  of  the  city.  He  withdrew  from  his  station. 
He  went  in  quest  of  a  surgeon.  His  flight  was  perceived.  He  was 
stopped  by  the  emperor.  The  emperor  was  indefatigable.  "Your 
wound  is  slight."  "The  danger  is  pressing."  "Your  presence  is 
necessary."  "Whither  will  you  retire  ?"  These  words  were  said  by 
Palaiologus.  The  Genoese  trembled.  "  I  will  retire  by  a  certain 
road."  God  had  opened  this  road  to  the  Turks.  He  passed  hastily 
through  a  breach  in  the  wall.  It  was  one  of  the  breaches  of  the  inner 
wall.  The  act  was  pusillanimous.  He  stained  the  honors  of  a  mili- 
tary life.  His  example  was  imitated.  The  greater  part  of  the  Latin 
auxiliaries  followed  his  example.  The  defense  began  to  slacken.  The 
attack  was  pressed  with  redoubled  vigor.  Constantinople  was  irre- 
trievably subdued.     Mahomet  the  Second  was  its  conqueror. 

Rhet.— 9. 


98  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 


EXERCISES  IN  COMPOSITION. 


REPRODUCTION  V/T. 


PROSE    READINGS. 

To  THE  Teacher. — It  will  be  found  advantageous  to  give  also  prose  selec- 
tions for  reproduction.  These  have  been  omitted  for  want  of  space.  They  can, 
however,  be  given  whenever  desired  by  reading  the  class  something  suited  to  the 
purpose.  Selections  by  Prof.  Edward  R.  Shaw,  will  furnish  excellent  material  for 
such  reproduction. 


REPRODUCTION   VIII. 
ENVY    AND    AVARICE. 

Envy  and  Avarice,  one  summer  day, 

Sauntering  abroad 

In  quest  of  the  abode 
Of  some  poor  wretch  or  fool  who  lived  that  way — 
You — or  myself,  perhaps — I  can  not  say — 
Along  the  road,  scarce  heeding  where  it  tended, 
Their  way  in  sullen,  sulky  silence  wended; 
For,  though  twin  sisters,  these  two  charming  creatures, 
Rivals  in  hideousness  of  form  and  features. 
Wasted  no  great  love  between  them  as  they  went. 

Pale  Avarice, 

With  gloating  eyes, 
And  back  and  shoulders  almost  double  bent, 
Was  hugging  close  that  fatal  box 

For  which  she  's  ever  on  the  watch 

Some  glance  to  catch 
Suspiciously  directed  to  its  locks  ; 
And  Envy,  too,  no  doubt  with  silent  winking 

At  her  green,  greedy  orbs,  no  single  minute 
Withdrawn  from  it,  was  hard  a-thinking 

Of  all  the  shining  dollars  in  it. 


SYNTHESIS  OF  SENTENCES  INTO  A  PARAGRAPH.  99 

The  only  words  that  Avarice  could  utter, 

Her  constant  doom,  in  a  low,  frightened  mutter, 

"There's  not  enough,  enough,  yet  in  my  store!" 
While  Envy,  as  she  scanned  the  glittering  sight. 
Groaned  as  she  gnashed  her  yellow  teeth  with  spite, 

"  She 's  more  than  I,  more,  still  forever  more !  " 

Thus,  each  in  her  own  fashion,  as  they  wandered, 
Upon  the  coffer's  precious  contents  pondered. 

When  suddenly,  to  their  surprise, 

The  God  Desire  stood  before  their  eyes. 
Desire,  that  courteous  deity,  who  grants 
All  wishes,  prayers,  and  wants ; 
Said  he  to  the  two  sisters,  "  Beauteous  ladies. 
As  I  'm  a  gentleman,  my  task  and  trade  is 

To  be  the  slave  of  your  behest — 
Choose  therefore  at  your  own  sweet  will  and  pleasure, 
Honors  or  treasure ! 

Or  in  one  word,  whatever  you'd  like  best. 
But,  let  us  understand  each  other — she 
Who  speaks  the  first,  her  prayers  shall  certainly 

Receive — the  other,  the  same  boon  redoubled!" 

Imagine  how  our  amiable  pair. 

At  this  proposal,  all  so  frank  and  fair. 
Were  mutually  troubled ! 

Misers  and  enviers  of  our  human  race. 

Say,  what  would  you  have  done  in  such  a  case  ? 

Each  of  the  sisters  murmured,  sad  and  low, 
"  What  boots  it,  oh.  Desire,  to  me  to  have 
Crowns,  treasures,  all  the  goods  that  heart  can  crave, 

Or  power  divine  bestow. 

Since  still  another  must  have  always  more?" 

So  each,  lest  she  should  speak  before 

The  other,  hesitating  slow  and  long 

'Till  the  god  lost  all  patience,  held  her  tongue. 

He  was  enraged  in  such  a  way. 

To  be  kept  waiting  there  all  day. 


lOO  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC. 

With  two  such  beauties  in  the  pubhc  road ; 
Scarce  able  to  be  civil  even, 
He  wished  them  both — well,  not  in  heaven. 

Envy  at  last  the  silence  broke, 

And  smiling,  with  malignant  sneer. 
Upon  her  sister  dear. 

Who  stood  in  expectation  by. 
Ever  implacable  and  cruel,  spoke  : 

"  I  would  be  blinded  oi one  eye!  " 


Victor  Hugo. 


reproduction  ix. 
Nora's  charm. 

'TwAS  the  fisher's  wife  at  her  neighbor's  door, 
And  she  cried,  as  she  wrung  her  hands, 

"O  Nora,  get  your  cloak  and  hood. 
And  haste  with  me  o'er  the  sands." 

Now  a  kind  man  was  the  fisherman, 

And  a  lucky  man  was  he ; 
And  never  a  steadier  sailed  away 

From  the  Bay  of  Cromarty. 

And  the  wife  had  plenty  on  her  board. 
And  the  babe  in  her  arms  was  fair ; 

But  her  heart  was  always  full  of  fear, 
And  her  brow  was  black  with  care. 

And  she  stood  at  her  neighl)or's  door  and  cried, 

"Oh,  woe  is  me  this  night! 
For  the  fairies  have  stolen  my  pretty  babe 

And  left  me  an  ugly  sprite. 

"  My  pretty  babe,  that  was  more  than  all 

The  wealth  of  the  world  to  me ; 
With  his  coral  lips,  and  his  hair  of  gold. 

And  his  teeth  like  pearls  of  the  sea ! 


SYNTHESIS  OF  SENTENCES  INTO  A  PARAGRAPH.         lOI 

"  I  went  to  look  for  his  father's  boat, 

When  I  heard  the  stroke  of  the  oar ; 
And  I  left  him  cooing  soft  in  his  bed, 

As  the  bird  in  her  nest  by  the  door. 

"And  there  was  the  father  fair  in  sight, 

And  pulling  hard  to  the  land; 
And  my  foot  was  back  o'er  the  sill  again, 

Ere  his  keel  had  struck  the  sand. 

"But  the  fairies  had  time  to  steal  my  babe. 

And  leave  me  in  his  place 
A  restless  imp,  with  a  wicked  grin. 

And  never  a  smile  on  his  face." 

And  Nora  took  her  cloak  and  hood, 

And  softly  by  the  hand 
She  led  the  fisher's  wife  through  the  night 

Across  the  yellow  sand. 

"  Nay,  do  not  rave,  and  talk  so  wild ;  " 

'Twas  Nora  thus  that  spoke; 
"  We  must  have  our  wits  to  work  against 

The  arts  of  fairy  folk. 

"There's  a  charm  to  help  us  in  our  need, 

But  its  power  we  can  not  try. 
With  the  black  cloud  hanging  o'er  the  brow, 

And  the  salt  tear  in  the  eye. 

"  For  wicked  things  may  gibe  and  grin 

With  noisy  cheer  and  shout, 
But  the  joyous  peal  of  a  happy  laugh 

Has  power  to  drive  them  out. 

"And  if  this  sprite  we  can  but  please 

Till  he  laughs  with  merry  glee, 
We  shall  break  the  spell  that  holds  him  here, 

And  keeps  the  babe  from  your  knee." 


I02  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

So  the  mother  wiped  her  tears  away, 

And  patiently  and  long 
They  plied  the  restless,  stubborn  imp 

With  cunning  trick  and  song. 

They  blew  a  blast  on  the  fisher's  horn. 
Each  curious  prank  they  tried ; 

They  rocked  the  cradle  where  he  lay. 
As  a  boat  is  rocked  on  the  tide. 

But  there  the  hateful  creature  kept, 

In  place  of  the  human  child  ; 
And  never  once  his  writhing  ceased. 

And  never  once  he  smiled. 

Then  Nora  cried,  "Take  yonder  egg 

That  lies  upon  the  shelf. 
And  make  of  it  two  hollow  cups. 
Like  tiny  cups  of  delf." 

And  the  mother  took  the  sea-mew's  egg. 
And  broke  in  twain  the  shell, 

And  made  of  it  two  tiny  cups, 
And  filled  them  at  the  well. 

She  filled  them  up  as  Nora  bade. 

And  set  them  on  the  coals : 
And  the  imp  grew  still,  for  he  ne'er  had  seen 

In  fairy-land  such  bowls. 

And  when  the  water  bubl)lcd  and  boiled, 

Like  a  fountain  in  its  play. 
Mirth  bubbled  up  to  his  lips,  and  he  laughed 

Till  he  laughed  himself  away  ! 

And  the  mother  turned  about,  ;\iid  felt 
The  heart  in  her  bosom  leap  ; 

For  the  imp  was  gone,  and  there  in  his  place 
Lay  her  Ijaby  fast  asleep. 


SYNTHESIS  OF  SENTENCES  INTO  A  PARAGRAPH.        I03 

And  Nora  said  to  her  neighbor,  "  Now 

There  sure  can  be  no  doubt 
But  a  merry  heart  and  a  merry  h\ugh 

Drive  evil  spirits  out ! 

"And  who  can  say  but  the  dismal  frown 

And  the  doleful  sigh  are  the  sin 
That  keeps  the  good  from  our  homes  and  hearts, 

And  lets  the  evil  in!" 

Phcebe  Gary. 


DEVELOPMENT  V. 

"O  Mary,  go  and  call  the  cattle  home, 
And  call  the  cattle  home. 
And  call  the  cattle  home, 

Across  the  sands  o'  Dee ;  " 
The  western  wind  was  wild  and  dank  wi'  foam, 

And  all  alone  went  she. 

The  creeping  tide  came  up  along  the  sand. 
And  o'er  and  o'er  the  sand. 
And  round  and  round  the  sand, 

As  far  as  eye  could  see ; 
The  blinding  mist  came  down  and  hid  the  land — 

And  never  home  came  she. 

"Oh,  is  it  weed,  or  fish,  or  floating  hair — 

A  tress  o'  golden  hair, 

O'  drowned  maiden's  hair, 

Above  the  nets  at  sea  ? 
Was  never  salmon  yet  that  shone  so  fair 

Among  the  stakes  on  Dee." 

They  rowed  her  in  across  the  roUing  foam, 
The  cruel,  crawling  foam, 
The  cruel,  hungry  foam. 

To  her  grave  beside  the  sea ; 
But  still  the  boatmen  hear  her  call  the  cattle  home, 

Across  the  sands  o'  Dee. 

Chas.  Kingsley. 


I04  COMPOSITION  AND  RHEITORIC. 


DEVELOPMENT  VI. 

Oh  !  many  a  shaft  at  random  sent 

Finds  mark  the  archer  httle  meant ; 

And  many  a  word  at  random  spoken 

May  soothe  or  wound  the  heart  that's  broken. 

Sir  Walter  Scott. 


DEVELOPMENT   VII. 
DRIFTING. 

Oh,  the  winds  were  all  a-blowing  down  the  blue,  blue  sky, 
And  the  tide  was  outward  flowing,  and  the  rushes  flitted  by ; 
All  the  lilies  seemed  to  quiver 
On  the  fair  and  dimpled  river, 
All  the  west  was  golden  red ; 
We  were  children  four  together, 
In  the  pleasant  summer  weather, 
And  merrily  down  we  sped. 

Oh,  the  town  behind  us  faded  in  the  pale,  pale  gray. 
As  we  left  the  river  shaded,  and  we  drifted  down  the  bay ; 
And  across  the  harbor  bar, 
Where  the  angry  breakers  are, — 

You  and  Grace,  and  Tom  and  I, — 
To  the  Golden  Land  with  laughter. 
Where  we  'd  live  in  peace  thereafter, 
Just  beyond  the  golden  sky. 

Oh,  the  winds  were  chilly  growing  o'er  the  gray,  gray  sea, 
When  a  white-winged  bark  came  blowing  o'er  the  billows  on  our  lee. 
Cried  the  skipper  all  a-wonder: 
"Mercy  on  us!  over  yonder — 

Bear  a  hand,  my  lads,  witli  me — 
Four  young  children  all  together. 
In  this  pleasant  evening  weather, 
Go  a-drifting  out  to  sea!" 


SYNTHESIS  OF  SENTENCES  INTO  A   PARAGRAPH.         105 

All  our  prayers  were  unavailing,  all  our  fond,  fond  hopes. 
For  our  Golden  Land  had  vanished  with  its  fair  and  blooming  slopes, 
As  the  skipper,  with  loud  laughter, 
Towed  our  little  shallop  after, — 
Homeward  by  the  dreary  bay. 
Fast  our  childish  tears  were  flowing, 
Chill  the  western  wind  was  blowing, 
And  the  gold  had  turned  to  gray. 

E.  Vinton  Blake,  in  S/.  Nicholas. 


DE  VEL  OPMENT  VIII. 
FABLE. 

A  CERTAIN  bird  in  a  certain  wood, 

Feeling  the  spring-time  warm  and  good, 

Sang  to  it  in  melodious  mood. 

On  other  neighboring  branches  stood 

Other  birds  who  heard  his  song  : 

Loudly  he  sang  and  clear  and  strong ; 

Sweetly  he  sang,  and  it  stirred  their  gall 

There  should  be  a  voice  so  musical. 

They  said  to  themselves:  "We  must  stop  that  bird. 

He's  the  sweetest  voice  was  ever  heard. 

That  rich,  deep  chest-note,  crystal  clear, 

Is  a  mortifying  thing  to  hear. 

We  have  sharper  beaks  and  hardier  wings, 

Yet  we  but  croak:  this  fellow  sings!" 

So  they  planned  and  planned,  and  killed  the  bird 

With  the  sweetest  voice  was  ever  heard. 

T.  B.  Aldrich. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION. 

Variety  is  the  opposite  of  uniformity,  or  sameness,  and 
we  soon  grow  weary  of  sameness  ;  hence  variety  in  com- 
position is  one  of  the  sources  of  excellence.  It  keeps  up 
the  attention  of  the  reader  or  hearer,  and,  for  this  reason, 
conduces  to  the  vivacity  and  strength  of  the  discourse. 
On  this  point  Blair  says:  "Sentences  constructed  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner,  with  the  pauses  falling  at  equal  intervals, 
should  never  follow  one  another.  Short  sentences  should 
be  intermixed  with  long  and  swelling  ones,  to  render  dis- 
course sprightly  as  well  as  magnificent.  Even  discords, 
properly  introduced,  abrupt  sounds,  departures  from  regu- 
lar cadence,  have  sometimes  a  good  effect.  Monotony  is  the 
great  fault  into  which  writers  are  apt  to  fall  who  are  fond 
of  harmonious  arrangement ;  and  to  have  only  one  tune  or 
measure  is  not  much  better  than  having  none  at  all." 

Variety  of  expression  may  be  secured  in  two  ways: 
(i)  By  changing  the  arrangement,  or  structure,  of  the  sen- 
tence. (2)  By  changing  the  phraseology,  or  language,  used 
to  express  the  thought. 

Change  of  Structure. 

Change  of  structure  may  be  secured: 

(i)   By  changing  the  voice  of  the  verb.      Thus: 


VARIETY  OF  EXPRESSION. 


107 


Active — Caesar  defeated  Pompey. 
Passive — Pompey  was  defeated  by  Caesar. 

(2)  By  substituting  an  interrogative  for  a  declarative  sen- 
tence. 

The  interrogative  form  is  often  the  more  forcible.    Thus : 

Interrogative — Is  this  the  character  of  true  manhood? 
Declai'ative — ^This  is  not  the  character  of  true  manhood. 

(3)  By  substituting  an  exclamatory  for  a  declarative  sen- 
tence.    Thus : 

Declarative — It  is  a  beautiful  sunset. 
Exclamatory — What  a  beautiful  sunset  ! 

(4)  By  the  use  of  "there"  or  "it"  as  an  introductory 
word.     Thus : 

1.  There  is  no  place  like  home. 

2.  No  place  is  like  home. 

The  first  of  these  sentences  is  more  impressive ;  the  im- 
pressiveness  is  effected  by  the  use  of  the  introductory 
"there." 

(5)  By  substituting  the  direct  form  of  statement  for  the 
indirect.      Thus : 

Direct — General  Wolfe  said,   "I  die  happy." 
hidirect— GQnQVdiX  Wolfe  said  that  he  died  happy. 

(6)  By  transposing  the  parts  of  the  sentence. 

This  transposition  may  take  place  in  either  prose  or  poetry, 
but  it  occurs  most  frequently  in  poetry.      Thus : 

Natural  order — Honor  and  shame  rise  from  no  condition. 
Transposed — Honor  and  shame  from  no  condition  rise. 

(7)  By  abridging  clauses. 


108  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

(8)  By   substituting    phrases    for    words,    or   words    for 
phrases. 

(9)  By  expanding  words  or  phrases  into  clauses.* 

Method  I.  —  To  cJiangc  the  voice  of  a  verb. 


EXERCISE  XXX. 

Direction.  —  Vary  the  structure  of  the  following  sentences  by  changing  the 
verbs  in  the  active  voice  to  the  passive,  and  those  in  the  passive  to  the  active  : 

1.  Some  one  calls  a  blush  the  color  of  virtue. 

2.  Snow  is  melted  by  the  sun. 

3.  The  general  surrendered  the  fort. 

4.  Much  practice  is  required  to  write  well. 

5.  Health  is  promoted  by  temperance ;  ruined  by  intemperance. 

6.  Great  men  are  measured  by  their  character. 

7.  The  sweet  song  of  the  birds  delighted  his  ears. 

8.  Hands  of  angels  hidden  from  mortal  eyes,  shifted  the  scenery 
of  the  heavens. 

9.  Neglect  of  duty  often  produces  unhappiness. 

10.  What  evil  has  smitten  the  pinnace? 

11.  The  Norman  Conquest  introduced  Chivalry  and  the  Feudal 
System  into  England. 

12.  In  1 512,  Albert  Diirer  was  first  employed  by  the  Emperor  Max- 
imilian. 

13.  The  press  of  England  is  guarded  by  the  hearts  and  arms  of 
Englishmen. 

14.  This  system  did  not  promote  the  good  order  of  society. 

15.  A  cold,  sleety  rain  accompanied  the  cart  and  the  foot  travelers 
all  the  way  to  the  city. 

16.  Every  gentleman,  born  a  soldier,  scorns  any  other  occupation. 

17.  The  writings  of  Cicero  represent,  in  the  most  lively  colors,  the 
ignorance,  the  errors,  and  the  uncertainty  of  the  ancient  philosophers 
with  regard  to  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 


*•  Note. —  The  last  three  methods  have  been  treated  under  "Transformation 
of  Elements." 


VARIETY  OF  EXPRESSION. 


log 


Method  II.  —  To  change  a  declarative  to  an  interrogative 
sentence. 

The  natural,  or  primary,  use  of  interrogation  is  to  ask  a 
question  ;  but  when  declarative  sentences  are  expressed  in 
the  interrogative  form,  no  answer  is  expected  ;  the  inter- 
rogative form  is  used  merely  to  make  the  statement  more 
emphatic  and  convincing  than  the  declarative  form  could 
make  it. 

When  using  interrogation  as  a  means  of  emphasis,  we 
should  observe  two  things : 

(i)  A  negative  i)iterrogation  affirms.  Thus,  "  Do  we  not 
bear  the  image  of  our  Maker?"  is  but  a  forcible  way  of 
saying,   "We  bear  the  image  of  our  Maker." 

(2)  An  affirmative  intenvgation  denies.  Thus :  *  *  Doth 
God  pervert  judgment  ?  or  doth  the  Almighty  pervert  jus- 
tice?" Here  the  effect  is  to  deny  or  to  give  a  negative 
answer  to  the  question. 


EXERCISE  XXXI. 

Direction.  —  Vary  the  structure  of  the  following  sentences  by  substituting 
the  interrogative  form  for  the  declarative,  and  the  declarative  for  the  interroga- 
tive.    Note  the  gain  or  loss  in  emphasis. 

1.  Who  shall  lay  anything  to  the  charge  of  God's  elect? 

2.  Life  is  not  so  dear,  nor  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be  purchased  at 
the  price  of  chains  and  slavery. 

3.  We  shall  not  gather  strength  by  irresolution  and  inaction. 

4.  Life  can  never  be  too  short,  which  brings  nothing  but  disgrace 
and  oppression. 

5.  What  fairer  prospects  of  success  could  be  presented? 

6.  Despair  is  followed  by  courage. 

7.  Where  there  is  injury,  will  there  not  be  resentment? 

8.  When  a  king  is  lost  in  a  wood,  what  is  he  more  than  other  men? 


I  lO  COMPOSITION  ASD  RHliTOKIC. 

9.  Evil  so  reacts  upon  good,  as  not  only  to  retard  its  motion,  but 
to  change  its  nature. 

10.  If  we  repent  of  our  goo'i  actions,  what  is  left  for  our  faults  and 
follies  ? 

1 1.  You  can  not  expect  to  do  justice  when  you  will  not  hear  the  ac- 
cused. 

12.  Your  troops  and  your  ships  have  made  a  vain  and  insulting 
parade  in  their  streets  and  in  their  harbors. 

13.  You  can  not  expect  to  be  well  informed  when  you  listen  only  to 
partisans. 

14.  Men  do  not  gather  grapes  of  thorns,  nor  figs  of  thistles. 

15.  It  is  lawful  for  me  to  do  what  I  will  with  my  own. 

16.  Nothing  remains,  then,  but  for  us  to  stand  foremost  in  the 
breach,  to  repair  it,  or  perish  in  it. 

17.  Can  you  put  the  dearest  interest  of  society  at  risk,  without  guilt 
and  without  remorse  ? 

18.  A  man  can  not  contrive  to  be  hereafter  in  England  on  a  day 
that  is  past. 

Method  III.  —  To  change  a  declarative  to  an  exclamatory 
sentoice. 

By  this  change,  a  plain  or  simple  fact  is  expressed  with 
emotion.  Care  should  be  taken,  therefore,  to  use  the  ex- 
clamatory form  only  where  strong  feeling  or  great  earnest- 
ness is  to  be  expressed. 

In  exclamative  sentences  the  verb  is  frequently  omitted  ; 
as,  ' '  What  a  terrible  crime ! "  This  is  equivalent  to,  ' '  What 
a  terrible  crime  this  is!  "  To  express  this  idea  in  the  de- 
clarative form  we  would  .say,  "This  is  a  terrible  crime." 

EXERCISE   XXXII. 

Direction.  —  Vary  the  structure  of  tlie  following  sentences  by  clianging  the 
decLirutive  to  the  exclamatory  form  : 

1.  She  is  fruitful  in  resources  and  coini)rehensivc  in  her  views. 

2.  A  silence  came  with  the  snow. 


VARIETY  OF  EXPRESSION.  Ill 

3.  A  wilderness  of  floral  beauty  was  hidden  upon  the  tropic  islands, 

4.  The  chime  of  the  Sabbath  bells  is  sweet. 

5.  The  hot  tears  fall. 

6.  This  bleak  old  house  will  look  lonely  next  year. 

7.  It  is  hard  to  follow,  with  lips  that  quiver,  that  moving  speck  on 
the  far-off  side. 

8.  Vast  motives  press  upon  us  for  lofty  efforts. 

9.  That  a  nation  could  be  thus  deluded  is  wonderful. 

10.  The  music  of  those  evening  bells,  those  evening  bells,  tells 
many  a  tale. 

11.  It  is  a  bitter  thing  to  look  into  happiness  through  another  man's 
eyes. 

12.  This  hour  of  calm  is  sweet  and  soothing. 

13.  Man  is  a  wonderful  piece  of  work;  noble  in  reason,  infinite  in 
faculties;  in  form  and  moving,  express  and  admirable ;  in  action,  like 
an  angel ;  in  apprehension,  like  a  god. 

14.  The  poor  country  is  almost  afraid  to  know  itself. 

15.  I  wish  that  a  man  might  know  the  end  of  this  day's  business. 

16.  Mischiei  is  swift  to  enter  into  the  thoughts  of  desperate  men. 

17.  It  is  too  true ;  that  speech  doth  give  my  conscience  a  smart  lash. 

18.  A  noble  mind  is  here  o'erthrown. 

19.  He  hath  accumulated  piles  of  wealth  to  his  own  portion. 

20.  Ye  eagerly  follow  my  disgrace,  as  if  it  fed  ye. 

21.  The  poor  man  that  hangs  on  princes'  favors  is  wretched. 

Method  IV.  —  To  7ise  ''there"  as  an  introeluctory  ivord, 
or  "z/"  as  the  anticipativc  subject. 

The  beginning  of  the  sentence  is  the  usual  place  for  the 
subject;  now,  to  use  the  introductory  "there"  or  the  an- 
ticipative  subject  "it"  removes  the  real  subject  from  the 
beginning,  and  thus  emphasizes  it. 

The  idiom  ''it  is"  introducing  a  sentence  or  a  clause, 
is  one  of  great  value;  yet  it  is  a  frequent  source  of  ambi- 
guity. Whenever  doubt  arises  from  its  use,  substitute  for 
the  impersonal  verb,  the  corresponding  noun;  as,  "It  is 
asserted,"  "the  assertion  is  made";  "//will  be  explained," 
"the  explanation  will  be  given." 


112  COMPOSITION    AND   RHICTORIC. 


EXERCISE  XXXIII. 

Direction. —  Vary  the  following  expressions  by  using  the  anticipative  subject 
"There"  or  "  It "  : 

1.  To  twist  iron  .anchors  and  braid  cannons  is  as  easy  as  to  braid 
straw. 

2.  That  paint  costs  nothing  is  a  Dutch  proverb. 

3.  None  were  so  brave  as  he. 

4.  Some  men  are  full  of  affection  for  themselves. 

5.  We  crossed  the  Alleghanies  just  about  daybreak. 

6.  Several  of  us  are  in  the  secret. 

7.  Much  may  be  said  in  favor  of  our  project. 

8.  For  men  to  deceive  is  wrong. 

9.  To  avoid  harshness  in  such  a  case  is  not  necessary. 

10.  That  we  only  believe  as  deep  as  we  live  is  curious. 

11.  For  a  man  to  rest  in  ignorance  of  the  structure  of  his  own  body 
is  a  shame. 

12.  That  the  little  mill  can  never  resist  this  mighty  rush  of  waters 
is  plain  enough. 

13.  What  you  ought  to  deny  already  exists. 

14.  To  learn  caution  by  the  misfortunes  of  others  is  a  good  thing. 

15.  Anger  seldom  deprived  him  of  power  over  himself. 

16.  He  appeared  to  understand  me  well  enough. 

17.  Judgment  had  better  be  deferred. 

18.  Probably  the  ship  will  sail  to-morrow. 

19.  Hope  soothes  us  under  misfortune. 

20.  A  poor  e.\ile  of  Erin  came  to  the  beach. 

21.  Faith,  hope,  and  charity  are  three  noble  virtues. 

22.  Moral  principles  slumber  in  the  souls  of  the  most  depraved. 

23.  Many  able  minds  are  considering  this  matter. 

Method  V.  —  To  substitute  the  direct  fonn  of  discoitrsc  for 
the  indirect. 

The  direct  form  of  speech  gives  the  words  of  the  speaker 
exactly  as  uttered  by  himself;  the  indirect  form  gives  them 
as  rejiorted  l^y  another.      In  tlie  direct  forui,  the  words  of 


VARIETY  OF  EXPRESSION.  II3 

the  statement  must  be  inclosed  in  quotation  marks ;  in  the 
indirect,  the  marks  are  not  used. 

In  substituting  the  indirect  form  of  speech  for  the  direct, 
the  principal  variations  are : 

(i)  The  first  and  .second  persons  are  changed  to  the  third. 

(2)  The  present  tense  is  changed  to  its  corresponding  past. 

(3)  The  near  demonstrative  this  is  changed  to  the  more 
remote  tJiat. 

EXERCISE  XXXIV. 

Direction. —  In  the  following  passages,  vary  the  structure  by  substituting  the 
direct  form  for  the  indirect,  and  the  indirect  for  the  direct : 

1.  Patrick  Henry  said  that  the  war  was  inevitable,  and  that  he  was 
willing  it  should  come.     Then  he  repeated  that  he  wished  it  to  come. 

2.  The  Senate,  he  observed,  must  have  heard  with  pleasure,  that 
Caesar  condemned  the  conspiracy. 

3.  When  the  Emperor  signaled  that  he  had  no  further  charge  to 
make,  Augustus  said,  "Next  time,  when  you  give  ear  to  information 
against  honest  men,  take  care  that  your  informants  are  honest  men 
themselves." 

4.  He  told  us  that  he  had  been  thirty  years  employing  his  thoughts 
for  the  improvement  of  mankind. 

5.  "I  beseech  you,  O  Athenians,"  said  Themistocles,  "to  betake 
yourselves  to  your  ships ;  for  I  perceive  that  there  is  no  longer  any 
hope." 

6.  Bion,  seeing  a  person  who  was  tearing  the  hair  of  his  head  for 
sorrow,  said,  "Does  this  man  think  that  baldness  is  a  remedy  for 
grief?" 

7.  Down  the  long  street  he  walked,  as  one  who  said  that  a  town 
which  boasted  inhabitants  hke  him  could  have  no  lack  of  good  society. 

8.  A  drunkard  once  reeled  up  to  Whitefield  with  the  remark,  "  Mr. 
Whitefield,  I  am  one  of  your  converts."  "I  think  it  very  likely," 
was  the  reply;  "for  I  ain  sure  you  are  none  of  God's." 

9.  The  Samnites  told  the  Romans  that  there  should  be  no  peace 
in  Italy  till  the  forests  were  rooted  up  in  which  the  Roman  wolves  had 
made  themselves  a  covert. 

Rhet.— 10. 


114  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

10.  When  his  architect  offered  to  build  him  a  house  in  which  he 
could  screen  all  his  acts  from  his  neighbors,  Drusus  said,  "Build  me 
rather  a  dwelling  wherein  all  my  countrymen  may  witness  all  I  do." 

11.  When  Plato  heard  that  his  enemies  called  him  a  bad  man,  he 
said  that  he  should  take  care  so  to  live  that  no  one  would  believe  them. 

12.  "See  you  yon  light  on  the  southern  headland?"  returned  the 
pilot;  "you  may  know  it  from  the  star  near  it  by  its  sinking,  at  times, 
into  the  ocean.  If  we  keep  that  light  open  from  the  hill,  we  shall  do 
well — but,  if  not,  we  surely  go  to  pieces."* 

13.  To  the  lords  of  convention  'twas  Claverhouse  spoke, 

"Ere  the  king's  crown  shall  fall  there  are  crowns  to  be  broke; 
So  let  each  cavalier  who  loves  honor  and  me. 
Come  and  follow  the  bonnets  of  bonnie  Dundee!  " 

14.  "  1  have  been  thinking  all  day,"  said  gently  the  Puritan  maiden, 
"  Dreaming  all  night,  and  thinking  all  day,  of  the  hedge-rows  of 

England, — 

They  are  in  blossom  now,  and  the  country  is  all  like  a  garden ; 

Thinking  of  lanes  and  fields,  and  the  song  of  the  lark  and  the 
linnet, 

Seeing  the  village  street,  and  familiar  faces  of  neighbors 

Going  about  as  of  old,  and  stopping  to  gossip  together, 
.  And,  at  the  end  of  the  street,  the  village  church,  with  the  ivy 

Climbing  the  old  gray  tower,  and  the  quiet  graves  in  the  church- 
yard. 

Kind  are  the  people  I  live  with,  and  dear  to  me  my  religion; 

Still  my  heart  is  so  sad,  that  I  wish  myself  back  in  Old  England." 

15.  "Ah,  how  short  are  the  days  !     How  soon  the  night  overtakes  us! 
In  the  old  country  the  twilight  is  longer;  but  here  in  the  forest 
Suddenly  comes  the  dark,  with  hardly  a  pause  in  its  coming. 
Hardly  a  moment  between  the  two  lights,  the  day  and  the  lamp- 
light ; 

Yet  how  grand  is  the  winter!     How  spotless  the  snow  is,  and  per- 
fect! " 


•••'Note. —  It  is  not  expected  that  the  required  substitution  be  made  in  the  fol- 
lowing stanzas  without  destroying  the  meter. 


VARIETY  OF  EXPRESSION. 


115 


Thus  spake  Elizabeth  Haddon  at  nightfall  to  Hannah  the  house- 
maid, 
As  in  the  farm-house  kitchen,  that  served  for  kitchen  and  parlor, 
By  the  window  she  sat  with  her  work,  and  looked  on  a  landscape 
White  as  the  great  white  sheet  that  Peter  saw  in  his  vision, 
By  the  four  corners  let  down  and  descending  out  of  the  heavens. 

Method  VI.  —  To  transpose  the  parts  of  a  sentence. 

Every  word  in  a  sentence  has  its  natural  position,  where 
it  performs  its  office,  but  attracts  no  special  attention.  In 
\h\s  natural  or  graininatkal  order  we  have,  (i)  the  subject 
with  its  modifiers ;  (2)  the  verb ;  (3)  the  object  or  comple- 
ment ;  (4)  the  adverbial  phrases  or  clauses.  Now,  for  the 
sake  of  emphasis  or  adornment,  the  writer  has  frequent 
occasion  to  invert  the  grammatical  order  of  parts  in  a  sen- 
tence,—  to  put  verbs  before  their  subjects,  objects  and 
predicate  adjectives  before  their  verbs,  or  adverbial  words 
and  phrases  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence.  The  mere 
fact  that  the  word  is  in  an  unwonted  place  gives  it  distinc- 
tion. 

The  inverted,  or  rhetorical  order  belongs  peculiarly 
to  poetry,  where  the  utmost  freedom  is  allowed  for  the 
sake  of  rhyme  and  meter.  The  use  of  this  order  in  prose 
is  mainly  for  emphasis ;  and,  being  a  feature  more  natural 
to  impassioned  style,  it  should  be  used  sparingly,  and  only 
when  there  is  a  sufficient  reason  for  the  inversion. 

To  secure  emphasis  by  means  of  inversion  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that — 

Emphatic  zvords  must  stand  in  pronnncnt  positions ;  that 
is,  for  the  most  part,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence  or  at 
the  end. 

Example:   Noiv  is  the  accepted  time. 


1 16  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  principal  poetical  construc- 
tions : 

1 .  TJic  omission  of  the  article ;  as, 

When  (     )  day  was  gone. 

Not  fearing  toil  nor  (     )  length  of  weary  days. 

2.  T/ie  oinissio)i  of  conjunctive  particles  ;  as, 

But  (     )  soon  as  Luke  could  stand. 
(     )     Dear  as  the  blood  ye  gave. 

3.  The  antecedent  is  omitted;  as, 

Happy  who  walks  with  him. 

Who  overcomes  by  force,  hath  overcome  but  half  his  foe. 

4.  The  auxiliary  verb  ''to  do''  is  omitted  in  an  interroga- 

tio>i ;  as, 

Knozu  ye  aught  of  mercy  ? 

Lovest  thou  thy  native  land? 

Ho  !  come  ye  in  peace  here,  or  cojue  ye  in  war? 

5.  The  verb  precedes  the  nominative ;  as. 

Then  shook  the  hills,  with  thunder  riven. 
Then  rushed  the  steed,  to  battle  driven, 
And  louder  than  the  bolts  of  heaven 
Y-xc  flashed  the  red  artillery. 

6.  The  object  precedes  the  verb ;  as, 

The  doors  wide  open  fling. 

These  abilities  Charles  V.  possessed. 

His  look  on  me  he  bent. 

Lands  he  could  measure,  times  and  tides  presage. 

7.  The  noim  precedes  the  adjective ;  as. 

Across  the  meadows  bare  and  brown. 
Hadst  thou  sent  warning /(?/>  and  true. 
Each  wolf  that  dies  in  the  woodland  brown. 


VARIETY  OF  EXPRESSION. 


117 


8.  TJic  adjective  precedes  the  verb  ''to  be'';  as, 

Sweet  is  the  breath  of  vernal  showers. 
Bitter  but  unavailing  were  my  regrets. 

9.  TJie  projioun  is  expressed  in  the  imperative ;  as, 

Be  t/ioH  as  hghtning  in  the  eyes  of  France. 
But,  blench  not  thou. 
Hope  thou  in  God. 

10.  Adjectives  are  used  for  adverbs ;  as. 

So  strode  he  back  slow  to  the  wounded  King. 
Then  he  would  whistle  rapid  as  any  lark. 
Swift  fly  the  years,  and  rise  the  expected  morn. 

1 1.  Personal  pronouns  are  used  luith  their  antecedents  ;  as, 

The  winds  and  the  waves  of  ocean, 

They  rested  quietly. 

For  the  deck,  it  was  their  field  of  fame. 

12.  Prepositions  are  suppressed ;  as, 

He  flies  (     )  the  event. 
(     )     Chisel  in  hand  stood  a  sculptor  boy. 
Despair  and  anguish  fled  (     )  the  struggling  soul. 

13.  Adverbial  pJirases  arc  not  placed  beside  the  ivords  to 
luhich  they  grammatical ly  belong;  as, 

On  through  the  camp  the  column  trod. 
In  coat  of  mail  the.  pools  are  bound. 
Under  a  spreading  chestnut-tree 
The  village  smithy  stands. 

1 4.  '  'Ajtd — and ' '  is  used  for  ' '  both — and  ";  "  or — or ' '  for 
' '  either — or  "  ;  "  nor — nor ' '  for  ' '  neither — nor  " ;  as, 

Nor  war's  wild  note  nor  glory's  peal. 
And  the  starlight  and  moonlight. 
Or  trust  or  doubt  give  o'er. 
Our  acts  our  angels  are,  or  good  or  ill. 


Il8  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC. 


EXERCISE  XXXV 


Direction. —  In  the  following  passages  arc  found  both  orders  —  the  rhe- 
torical and  the  natural.  Transpose  the  passages  in  the  rhetorical,  or  poetical, 
order  to  the  natural,  or  prose,  order,  and  those  in  the  natural  order  to  the 
rhetorical:^ 

1.  Fancy  then  spread  her  magical  pinion. 

2.  Gusty  and  raw  was  the  morning. 

3.  They  were  moving  slow  in  weeds  of  woe. 

4.  The  sun  is  still  shining  behind  the  clouds. 

5.  Nature's  darling  was  laid  in  thy  green  lap. 

6.  Thou  art  no  boding  maid  of  divine  skill. 

7.  Prepare  the  rich  repast. 

8.  From  every-  face  He  wipes  off  every  tear. 

9.  Far,  vague,  and  dim,  the  mountains  swim. 

10.  The  waves  had  gone  to  sleep. 

1 1.  The  spring  greets  my  senses  in  vain. 

12.  Beneath  her  torn  hat  glowed  the  wealth 
Of  simple  beauty  and  rustic  health. 

13.  These  delights  if  thou  canst  give, 
Mirth,  with  thee  I  mean  to  live. 

14.  O,  the  root  was  evil,  and  the  fruit  was  bitter,  and  the  juice  of 
the  vintage  that  we  trod  was  crimson. 

15.  Like  lions  leaping  at  a  fold,  when  mad  with  hunger's  pang, 
Right  up  against  the  English  line  the  Irish  exiles  sprang. 

16.  No  more  on  life's  parade  shall  meet 
That  brave  and  fallen  few. 
On  fame's  eternal  camping-ground 
Their  silent  tents  are  spread. 

17.  He  goes  onward,  toiling,  rejoicing,  sorrowing  through  life. 

18.  Their  juice  is  drugged  for  foreign  use. 


*NOTE. —  In  transposing  poetical  passages  from  the  metrical  to  the  jirose 
order,  all  ellipses  should  be  supplied,  and  the  elements  of  each  sentence  should 
be  arranged  in  natural  order.  This  order  may  afterwards  be  modified  in  re- 
spect to  the  arrangement  of  the  phrases  and  clauses,  so  as  to  make  the  sen- 
tence more  graceful  and  harmonious. 


VARIETY  OF  EXPRESSION. 


119 


19.  The  only  hope  of  courage  dwells  in  native  swords  and  native 
ranks. 

20.  I  do  not  grieve  for  past  pleasures  nor  for  perils  gathering  near. 

21.  Flows  there  a  tear  of  pity  for  the  dead  ? 

22.  Sudden  he  stops  ;  his  eye  is  fixed. 

23.  Here  giant  weeds  a  passage  scarce  allow, 

To  halls  deserted,  portals  gaping  wide. 

24.  Hark  !  heard  you  not  those  hoofs  of  dreadful  note  ? 

Sounds  not  the  clang  of  conflict  on  the  heath  ? 

25.  Who  wickedly  is  wise,  or  madly  brave, 
Is  but  the  more  a  fool,  the  more  a  knave. 

26.  He  falls  slowly,  and,  amidst  triumphant  cries,  he  dies  without  a 
groan,  without  a  struggle. 

27.  The  swallows  sang  wild  and  high  from  their  nests  beneath  the 
rafters ;  and  the  world,  sleeping  beneath  me,  seemed  more  distant 
than  the  sky. 

28.  The  golden  sun  poured  in  a  dusty  beam  through  the  closed 
blinds. 

29.  Long  at  the  scene,  bewildered  and  amazed. 

The  trembling  clerks  in  speechless  wonder  gazed. 

30.  Golden  and  red  above  it 

The  clouds  float  gorgeously. 

31.  Then  stirs  the  feeling  infinite,  so  felt 
In  solitude,  when  we  are  least  alone. 

32.  Brunswick's  fated  chieftain  sat  within  a  niche  of  that  high  wall. 

33.  I  feel  within  me  a  peace  above  all  earthly  dignities,  a  still  and 
quiet  conscience. 

34.  I  obtained  this  freedom  with  a  great  sum. 

35.  And  every  soul,  it  passed  me  by. 

36.  Him  serve  with  mirth,  his  praise  forth  tell. 

37.  Headlong  themselves  they  threw  down  from  the  verge  of 
heaven. 

38.  That  divine  messenger  comes  with  a  slow  and  noiseless  step. 

39.  The  ancient  splendor  is  vanished,  and  these  mingled  shapes 
and  figures  wave  like  a  faded  tapestry,  before  my  dreamy  eyes. 

40.  Life's  goblet  is  filled  to  the  brim ;  and  though  my  eyes  are  din^ 
with  tears,  I  see  its  sparkling  bubbles  swim,  and  chant  with  slow  and 
solemn  voice  a  melancholy  hvmn. 


I20  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


Change  of  Phraseology. 


Change  of  phraseology  may  be  secured : 

(i)   By  using  words  of  similar  meaning. 

Thus,  "We  rejoice  in  h.\s  fidelity''  and,  "We  rejoice 
in  his  faithfulness  "  express  substantially  the  same  idea, 
"  He  giveth  grace  to  the  /iumdle"  and,  "He  giveth  grace 
to  the  lou'ly  "  do  not  differ  materially  in  meaning. 

(2)  By  denying  the  contrary  of  a  proposition. 

Thus,  "It  is  easy  to  manage  the  matter"  is  equivalent 
to,  "  It  is  not  difficult  to  manage  the  matter." 

(3)  By  euphemism. 

This  change  is  similar  to  "denying  the  contrary,"  but 
its  special  use  is  to  avoid  the  harshness  of  a  direct  state- 
ment.    Euphemism  means  "soft-speaking."     Thus: 

Direct — He  is  cowardly. 

Etiphemism — He  could  hardly  be  called  a  brave  man. 

(4)  By  circumlocution. 

This  is  effected  by  saying  indirectly  what  might  be  said 
directly,  or  by  using  several  words  to  express  the  sense  of 
one;  as,  "the  terrestrial  sphere"  for  "the  earth,"  "night's 
gentle  radiance"  for  "the  moon,"  and  similar  expressions. 
In  general,  this  mode  of  variation  is  not  advisable,  as  the 
statement  is  likely  to  lose  in  force. 

(5)  By  recasting  the  sentence. 

Frequently,  this  is  the  only  manner  in  which  variety  can 
be  secured.  No  rule  can  be  given  for  such  recasting; 
practice  alone  will  enable  the  w  riter  to  express  the  idea  in 
different  forms. 

The  following  illustration  exemplifies  this  method  of 
\-ariation : 


VARIETY  OF  EXPRESSION. 


1^1 


Statement :  Youth  is  hopeful. 


Variations. 


The  young  look  not  anxiously  upon  the  future. 

The  young  are  full  of  eager  trust. 

In  life's  morning  we  think  not  of  its  clouds. 

Bright-eyed  youth  sees  nothing  to  dread. 

Hope  is  the  birthright  of  the  young. 

'Tis  as  natural  for  young  hearts  to  hope  as  for  roses  to 

blossom  in  June. 
Doubt  and  fear  can  not  daunt  the  youthful  spirit. 
Though  life's  pathway  is  rugged  and  steep,  the  feet  of 

the  young  press  bravely  on. 
Keen-edged  despair  seldom  pierces  a  youthful  breast. 
To  the  spring-time  of  life  belong  the  radiant  buds  of 

promise. 
Youth  sees  no  darkness  ahead;  its  open,  trustful  eytfs 

look  upon  the  future  as  a  realm  of  glorious  beauty.* 


EXERCISE  XXXVI. 

Direction.  —  Vary  the  phraseology  of  the  following  sentences  by  substitut- 
ing -vords  of  similar  meaning  for  those  in  italics : 


1 .  The  lamb  has  a  gentle  disposition. 

2.  He  continued  the  work  without  resting. 

3.  He  is  free  from  care. 

4.  I  found  that  he  was  an  enemy. 

5.  Law  and  order  are  not  observed. 

6.  A  pile  of  dust  is  all  that  remains  of  thee. 

7.  I  began  to  think  the  whole  thing  a  gross  deception. 

8.  The  boy  carried  the  book  to  my  lodgings. 

9.  I  will  attend  the  conference,  if  I  can  do  it  conveniently. 


*  Note. —  Each  of  these  eleven  sentences  conveys  the  meaning  of  the  orig- 
inal statement,  yet  how  different  are  the  forms  obtained  by  aid  of  the  art  of 
varying  expression.  Readiness  in  changing  the  form  of  a  statement  is  of  prac- 
tical importance ;  we  can  never  be  sure  that  we  have  used  the  best  mode  of 
wording  a  sentence  until  we  have  thought  of  the  various  ways  in  which  it  may 
be  worded.  By  practice  we  learn  to  think  promptly  of  many  forms  of  e.xpres- 
sion,  and  to  select  the  best. 
Rhet.— II. 


122  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

10.  Among  all  our  bad  passions  there  is  a  strong  and  close  connec- 
tion. 

11.  James  deserved  reproof  {ax  more  than  John  did. 

12.  This  quiet  sail  is  as  a  noiseless  wing  (o  waft  me  from  distrac- 
tion. 

13.  She  pi7ied  in  t/ioieg/it. 

14.  There  is  no  ma/ice  in  this  burning  coal. 

1 5.  Socrates  was  one  of  the  greatest  sages  the  world  has  ever  seen. 

16.  To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  wrong. 

17.  Make  me  a  cottage  in  the  vale,  where  I  may  mourn  and  pray. 

18.  See  how  the  morning  opes  her  golden  gates. 

19.  This  is  the  beginning  of  civility. 

20.  'Tis  hard  to  fifid  the  right  Homer. 

2 1 .  My  traveling  companions  were  very  disagreeable  individuals. 

22.  A  person  who  looked  on  the  waters  only  for  a  moment  might 
fancy  that  they  were  retiring* 

EXERCISE  XXXVII. 

Direction.  —  Vary  the  following  by  denying  the  contrary  o{  each  proposi- 
tion:! 

1.  Men  laugh  at  the  infirmities  of  others. 

2.  He  that  is  wise  may  be  profitable  unto  himself. 

3.  Cold  is  Cadwallo's  tongue. 

4.  The  robin  visits  us  frequently. 

5.  They  were  satisfied  with  the  result. 

6.  He  is  without  wit. 

7.  Chastening  for  the  present  seems  grievous. 

8.  I  shall  ever  remember  the  waking  next  morning. 

9.  The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them. 

10.  He  favors  our  project. 

11.  This  seems  probable. 


*To  THE  Teacher. — The  object  of  the  foregoing  exercise  is  not  to  exact 
strict  verbal  accuracy,  but  merely  to  assist  the  pupil  in  acquiring  a  command 
of  language. 

fNOTE.  —  This  change  may  often  be  effected  by  the  use  of  a  word  of  op- 
posite meaning  in  the  predicate.  Thus,  "Mary  is  diligent"  is  equivalent  to, 
"  .Mary  is  not  idle." 


VARIETY  OF  EXPRESSION.  123 

12.  The  flowers  smell  sweet. 

13.  Her  step  was  light. 

14.  Only  a  small  part  of  Arabia  is  fertile. 

15.  I  will  remain  with  you. 

16.  She  is  disposed  to  help  you. 

17.  Time  is  as  precious  as  gold. 

18.  She  is  more  beautiful  than  her  sister. 

19.  He  is  a  brave  man. 

20.  A  large  part  of  the  company  were  pleased  with  his  remarks. 

2 1 .  The  character  of  the  Patriarch  Joseph  is  the  most  remarkable 
and  instructive  exhibited  by  the  records  of  Scripture. 

22.  She  who  studies  her  glass  neglects  her  heart. 

23.  The  elegance  of  her  manners  is  as  conspicuous  as  the  beauty 
of  her  person. 

24.  Strong  expressions  suit  only  strong  feelings. 


EXERCISE  XXXVIII. 

Direction.  —  Vary  the  following  by  substituting  euphemisms  for  the  direct 
statements: 

1.  He  is  a  very  dirty  fellow. 

2.  Major  AndrS  was  hanged,  although  he  earnestly  requested  that 
he  might  be  shot. 

3.  I  consider  him  an  impudent  puppy. 

4.  The  man  was  drunk  when  he  uttered  the  indecent  words. 

5.  He  thought  the  man  a  scoundrel,  and  therefore  would  not  pay 
him  the  money. 

6.  A  genteel  man  never  uses  low  language. 

7.  He  eats  like  a  pig. 

8.  His  conceit  and  incessant  gabble  render  him  a  great  bore. 

9.  John  is  too  lazy  to  succeed  in  any  undertaking. 

10.  It  is  thought  that  he  came  into  possession  of  his  great  wealth 
by  means  of  fraud  and  theft. 

11.  He  was  inclined  to  drink  too  much. 

12.  His  greediness  and  stinginess  made  him  an  object  of  contempt. 

13.  Disaster  stared  them  in  the  face,  for  they  were  led  by  a  hot- 
headed dolt. 

14.  He  is  a  vagrant — a  disgrace  to  himself  and  to  his  friends. 


124 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


EXERCISE  XXXIX. 


Direction.  —  Vary  the  following  expressions  by  using  circumlocution. 


I. 

Despair  not. 

14 

o 

Fishes  swim. 

15 

3- 

Forsake  evil. 

16 

4- 

The  sun  rises. 

17 

5- 

Know  thyself. 

18 

6. 

Bread  is  dear. 

19 

7- 

Life  is  fleeting. 

20 

8. 

Death  is  certain. 

21 

9- 

Time  is  precious. 

->'> 

lO. 

Pity  excites  love. 

23 

II. 

The  sky  is  clear. 

24 

12. 

Man  lives  by  toil. 

25 

13- 

Avarice  is  a  curse. 

26 

The  grass  is  green. 

Jenny  Lind  is  dead. 

Men  delve  for  gold. 

Knowledge  is  power. 

Contentment  is  peace. 

Her  manners  are  gentle. 

The  moon  shines  bright. 

She  has  disappointed  me. 

Washington  was  a  patriot. 

The  sun  gives  light  and  heat. 

Our  school-mates  seldom  forget  us. 

Victoria  sways  the  English  scepter. 

Palaces  and  cottafres  alike  must  fall. 


EXERCISE  XL. 


Direction. —  Recast  each  of  the  following  sentences,  expressing  the  sense  in 
as  many  different  ways  as  possible : 


She  resolved  to  become  entirely  free. 

Fortune  was  still  as  unkind  as  ever. 

The  king  was  thoroughly  alarmed  at  this  invasion. 

These  successes  did  not  long  continue. 

We  should  love  our  enemies. 

Many  a  man  sacrifices  his  life  to  the  acquisition  of  wealth. 

The  world  is  still  deceived  with  ornament. 

Mercy  is  twice  blessed  ;  it  blesseth  him  that  gives,  and  him  that 


3- 
4- 
5- 
6. 

7- 

8. 

takes. 

9- 
10. 
II. 
12. 

13- 
14. 


The  sumach  is  staining  the  hedges  with  red. 

One  may  hide  his  sorrow  beneath  a  smiling  face. 

Rome,  the  capital  of  Italy,  is  the  world's  art-center. 

The  heart  is  not  satisfied. 

Trust  thyself. 

He  who  is  honest  is  noble,  whatever  his  fortunes  or  birth. 


VARIETY  OF  EXPRESSION. 


125 


1 5.  The  way-worn  traveler  longs  for  rest. 

16.  The  fields  are  gay  with  buttercups  and  clover. 

17.  Few  persons  have  the  courage  of  their  convictions. 

18.  Neither  man  nor  angel  can  discern  hypocrisy,  the  only  evil  that 
walks  invisible,  except  to  God  alone. 

19.  Our  unwise  purposes  are  wisely  crossed. 

20.  As  thy  day  is,  so  shall  thy  strength  be. 

21.  Form  your  taste  on  the  classics,  and  your  principles  on  the  book 
of  all  truth. 

22.  Let  the  first  fruits  of  your  intellect  be  laid  before  the  altar  of 
Him  who  breathed  into  your  nostrils  the  breath  of  life ;  and  with  that 
breath  your  immortal  spirit. 

23.  God's  angel.  Sleep,  with  manifold 

Soft  touches,  smoothing  brows  of  care. 
Dwells  not  beyond  the  gates  of  gold. 
Because  no  night  is  there. 

24.  Time  hath,  my  lord,  a  wallet  at  his  back, 

Wherein  he  puts  alms  for  oblivion. 

25.  Out  of  the  earthly  years  we  live. 
How  small  a  profit  springs  ! 


EXERCISES  IN  COMPOSITION. 


REPRODUCTION  X. 
AN    INCIDENT  OF  THE   FIRE  AT   HAMBURG. 

The  tower  of  old  Saint  Nicholas  soared  upward  to  the  skies. 
Like  some  huge  piece  of  Nature's  make,  the  growth  of  centuries ; 
You  could  not  deem  its  crowding  spires  a  work  of  human  art. 
They  seemed  to  struggle  lightward  from  a  sturdy  living  heart. 

Not  Nature's  self  more  freely  speaks  in  crystal  or  in  oak. 

Than,  through  the  pious  builder's  hand,  in  that  gray  pile  she  spoke; 

And  as  from  acorn  springs  the  oak,  so,  freely  and  alone. 

Sprang  from  his  heart  this  hymn  to  God,  sung  in  obedient  stone. 


126  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

It  seemed  a  wondrous  freak  of  chance,  so  perfect,  yet  so  rough, 

A  whim  of  Nature  crystalHzed  slowly  in  granite  tough ; 

The  thick  spires  yearned  towards  the  sky  in  quaint,  harmonious  lines, 

And  in  broad  sunlight  basked  and  slept,  like  a  grove  of  blasted  pines. 

Never  did  rock  or  stream  or  tree  lay  claim  with  better  right 
To  all  the  adorning  sympathies  of  shadow  and  of  light; 
And,  in  that  forest  petrified,  as  forester  there  dwells 
Stout  Herman,  the  old  sacristan,  sole  lord  of  all  its  bells. 

Surge  leaping  after  surge,  the  fire  roared  onward  red  as  blood. 

Till  half  of  Hamburg  lay  engulfed  beneath  the  eddying  flood; 

For  miles  away  the  fiery  spray  poured  down  its  deadly  rain. 

And  back  and  forth  the  billows  sucked,  and  paused,  and  burst  again. 

From  scjuare  to  scjuare  with  tiger  leaps  panted  the  lustful  fire; 

The  air  to  leeward  shuddered  with  the  gasps  of  its  desire ; 

And  church  and  palace,  which  even  now  stood  whelmed  but  to  the 

knee, 
Lift  their  black  roofs  like  breakers  lone  arnid  the  whirling  sea. 

Up  in  his  tower  old  Herman  sat  and  watched  with  quiet  look; 
His  soul  had  trusted  God  too  long  to  be  at  last  forsook ; 
He  could  not  fear,  for  surely  (lod  a  pathway  would  unfold 
Through  this  red  sea  for  faithful  hearts,  as  once  he  did  of  old. 

Tkit  scarcely  can  he  cross  himself,  or  on  his  good  saint  call, 
iSefore  the  sacrilegious  flood  o'erleaped  the  church-yard  wall; 
And,  ere  a  pater  half  was  said,  mid  smoke  and  crackling  glare, 
His  island  tower  scarce  juts  its  head  above  the  wide  despair. 

Upon  the  peril's  desperate  peak  his  heart  stood  up  sublime ; 
His  first  thought  was  for  God  above,  his  next  was  for  his  chime; 
"Sing  now  and  make  your  voices  heard  in  hymns  of  praise,"  cried  he, 
"As  did  the  Israelites  of  old,  safe  walking  through  the  sea! 

"Through  this  red  sea  our  God  hath  made  the  pathway  safe  to  shore; 
Our  promised  land  stands  full  in  sight;  shout  now  as  ne'er  before!" 
And  as  the  tower  came  crushing  down,  the  bells,  in  clear  accord. 
Pealed  forth  the  grand  old  German  hymn, — "All  good  souls,  praise  the 
Lord!" 

J.  R.  Lowell. 


VARIETY  OF  EXPRESSION.  12/ 

REPRODUCTION  XI. 
PRAYING   FOR   RAIN. 

How  difficult,  alas!  to  please  mankind! 

One  or  the  other  every  moment  mutters : 
This  wants  an  eastern,  that  a  western,  wind  : 

A  third,  petition  for  a  southern,  utters. 
Some  pray  for  rain,  and  some  for  frost  and  snow: 
How  can  Heaven  suit  all  palates  ? — I  don't  know. 

Good  Lamb,  the  curate,  much  approved, 
Indeed,  by  all  his  flock  beloved. 

Was  one  dry  summer  begged  to  pray  for  rain. 
The  parson  most  devoutly  prayed — 
The  powers  of  prayer  were  soon  displayed ; 

Immediately  a  torrent  drenched  the  plain. 

It  chanced  that  the  church-warden,  Robin  Jay, 
Had  of  his  meadow  not  yet  saved  the  hay : 

Thus  was  his  hay  to  health  quite  past  restoring. 
It  happened,  too,  that  Robin  was  from  home; 
But  when  he  heard  the  story,  in  a  foam 

He  sought  the  parson,  like  a  lion  roaring. 

"Zounds!  Parson  Lamb,  why,  what  have  you  been  doing? 
A  pretty  storm,  indeed,  ye  have  been  brewing! 

What !  pray  for  rain  before  I  saved  my  hay  ? 
Oh  !  you  're  a  cruel  and  ungrateful  man  ! 
I  that  forever  help  you  all  I  can ; 

Ask  you  to  dine  with  me  and  Mistress  Jay, 
Whenever  we  have  something  on  the  spit. 
Or  in  the  pot  a  nice  and  dainty  bit; 

"  Send  you  a  goose,  a  pair  of  chicken. 
Whose  bones  you  are  so  fond  of  picking ; 

And  often,  too,  a  cag  of  brandy  ! 
You  that  were  welcome  to  a  treat. 
To  smoke  and  chat,  and  drink  and  eat; 
Making  my  house  so  very  handy  !  " 


128  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

******** 
"  Dear  Mister  Jay !  "  quoth  Lamb,  "  alas !  alas ! 
I  never  thought  upon  your  field  of  grass." 
"Lord!  parson,  you're  a  fool,  one  might  suppose — 
Was  not  the  field  just  underneath  your  nose? 
This  is  a  very  pretty  losing  job !  " — 
"Sir,"  quoth  the  curate,  "know  that  Harry  Cobb, 
Your  brother  warden,  joined  to  have  the  prayer." 
"Cobb!  Cobb!  why,  this  for  Cobb  was  only  sport: 
What  doth  Cobb  own  that  any  rain  can  hurt?" 
Roared  furious  Jay  as  broad  as  he  could  stare. 

"  Besides — why  could  you  not  for  drizsle  pray? 
Why  force  it  down  in  buckets  on  the  hay  ? 
Would  I  have  played  with  your  hay  such  a  freak  ? 
No!  I  'd  have  stopped  the  weather  for  a  week." 
"  Dear  Mister  Jay,  I  do  protest, 
I  acted  solely  for  the  best ; 

I  do  affirm  it,  Mr.  Jay,  indeed. 
Your  anger  for  this  once  restrain, 
I  '11  never  bring  a  drop  again 

Till  you  and  all  the  parish  are  agreed.'' 

Peter  Pindar. 

DE  VEL  OPMEXT  IX. 

LOST. 

Without  a  hat  upon  his  head. 

Or  shoes  upon  his  tired  feet. 
Poor  little  Dick  had  roamed  along 

The  miles  of  hot  and  dusty  street. 
Where  was  his  home  ?     He  could  not  say ; 
His  mother?     She  was  far  away. 

A  kind  policeman  picked  him  up, 

And  held  him  in  his  strong  right  arm, 

And  there  the  wandering  little  boy 
Was  snugly  kept  from  every  harm. 
"Come,  little  man,  you'll  go  with  me; 

I  '11  find  out  where  you  ought  to  be." 


VARIETY  OF  EXPRESSION. 

But  first,  a  biscuit,  large  and  sweet. 
Was  placed  within  his  fingers  small, 

And,  oh !  it  was  a  perfect  treat ! 
Poor  little  Dick,  he  ate  it  all, 

And  wished,  no  doubt,  that  every  day 
A  treat  so  good  would  come  his  way. 

And  did  he  ever  reach  his  home? 

And  was  he  welcomed  there  with  joy  ? 
Alas,  that  I  should  have  to  tell 

That  none  had  missed  the  little  boy. 
Poor  little  Dick !  he  had  no  one 
To  care  for  him  beneath  the  sun ! 


DE  VELOPMENT  X. 

Four  bluish  eggs  all  in  the  moss ! 

Soft-lined  home  on  the  cherry  bough ! 
Life  is  trouble,  and  love  is  loss — 

There's  only  one  robin  now. 


129 


D.  B. 


T.  B.  Aldrich. 


DE  VEL  0PM E NT  XI. 


YUSSOUF. 


A  STRANGER  came  one  night  to  Yussouf 's  tent 
Saying,  "  Behold  one  outcast  and  in  dread. 

Against  whose  life  the  bow  of  power  is  bent, 
Who  flies,  and  hath  not  where  to  lay  his  head ; 

I  come  to  thee  for  shelter  and  for  food. 

To  Yussouf,  called  through  all  our  tribes  '  The  Good, 

"This  tent  is  mine,"  said  Yussouf,  "but  no  more 
Than  it  is  God's;  come  in,  and  be  at  peace; 

Freely  shalt  thou  partake  of  all  my  store, 
As  I  of  His  who  buildeth  over  these 

Our  tents  His  glorious  roof  of  night  and  day, 

And  at  whose  door  none  ever  yet  heard  Nay." 


130  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC, 

So  Yussouf  entertained  his  guest  that  night, 

And,  waking  him  ere  day,  said:  "  Here  is  gold; 

My  swiftest  horse  is  saddled  for  thy  flight ; 
Depart  before  the  prying  day  grow  bold." 

As  one  lamp  lights  another,  nor  grows  less, 

So  nobleness  enkindleth  nobleness. 

That  inward  light  the  stranger's  face  made  grand, 
Which  shines  from  all  self-conquest;  kneeling  low. 

He  bowed  his  forehead  upon  Yussouf 's  hand, 
Sobbing:  "O  Sheik,  I  can  not  leave  thee  so; 

I  will  repay  thee ;  all  this  thou  hast  done 

Unto  that  Ibrahim  who  slew  thy  son  !  " 

"Take  thrice  the  gold,"  said  Yussouf,  "for  with  thee 

Into  the  desert,  never  to  return. 
My  one  black  thought  shall  ride  away  from  me. 

First-born,  for  whom  by  day  and  night  I  yearn. 
Balanced  and  just  are  all  of  God's  decrees; 
Thou  art  avenged,  my  first-born,  sleep  in  peace!" 

J.  R.  Lowell. 


DEVELOPMENT  XII. 

Direction. — Write  a  story  from  the  following  heads,  supplying  whatever 
needed  to  preserve  the  connection,  and  to  sustain  the  interest: 

THE  STORY   OE  GRUMBLE  TONE. 

He  was  sick  of  land. 

He  ran  away  to  sea. 

Into  foreign  lands  he  wandered. 

There  were  wondrous  sights. 

He  dined  in  courts  with  kings  ww^X  fair  hidies. 

Naught  pleased  him. 

Over  the  wide  world  he  wandered. 

Ills  liair  grew  white  as  snow. 

He  still  found  only  discontent. 

He  took  his  disposition  everywhere  he  went. 


VARIETY  OF  EXPRESSION.  I3I 

SUBJECTS  FOR  STORY. 
Direction. — Write  short  stories  from  the  following  heads: 

1.  The  Snow  Man. 

2.  Dollie's  Education. 
""3.   Our  Cooking  Club. 

4.  The  Cricket's  Song. 

5.  The  Story  of  a  Wolf. 

6.  Miss  Butterfly's  Party. 

7.  The  Way  to  Fairyland. 

8.  Mrs.  Simpson's  Poodle. 

9.  A  Day  in  the  Hayfield. 

10.  The  Three  Little  Fishes. 

1 1 .  The  Story  of  a  Lost  Dog. 

12.  The  Dance  of  the  Leaves. 

13.  The  Crow  and  the  Scarecrow. 

14.  The  Voyage  of  a  Paper  Canoe. 

15.  The  Flight  of  John's  New  Kite. 

16.  How  Madge  Learned  to  Skate. 

17.  The  Three  Boys  of  Marshtown. 

■    18.    Ellen's  Hunt  for  her  Lost  Kitten. 

19.  The  Complaint  of  the  Foot-ball. 

20.  The  History  of  my  Work-basket. 

2 1 .  The  Experience  of  a  Silver  Dollar. 

22.  My  Visit  to  the  Children's  Hospital. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 


STYLE. 


Style  is  that  part  of  Rhetoric  which  treats  of  the  modes 
of  expressing  thought  in  language,  whether  oral  or  written. 
It  depends  partly  on  the  nature  and  importance  of  the  sub- 
ject, but  chiefly  on  the  character  and  disposition  of  the 
writer.     It  reveals  Jiozv  one  thinks  as  well  as  what  one  thinks. 

The  word  "style"  comes  from  the  Latin  stylus,  a  small 
pointed  instrument  used  by  the  Romans  for  writing  on 
waxen  tablets. 

The  stylus  was  to  the  Roman  writer  what  the  pen  is  to 
us,  and  became,  by  an  easy  metaphor,  the  means  of  ex- 
pressing any  one's  method  of  composition,  just  as  we  now, 
by  like  metaphor,  speak  of  a  gifted  pen,  a  ready  pen,  mean- 
ing thereby  a  gifted  or  ready  author. 

A  close  attention  to  style  is  of  the  utmost  importance. 
All  know  that  the  reception  of  a  truth  is  owing,  not  wholly 
to  the  truth  itself,  but  partly  to  the  manner  in  which  it  is 
presented.  The  same  facts  which,  when  stated  by  one, 
gain  the  understanding  and  affections,  will,  as  shown  by 
another,  produce  weariness  and  disgust. 

To  give  our  thoughts  their  full  and  just  expression  is 
not  an  easy  task  ;  it  demands  care  and  perseverance.  The 
greatest  masters  of  style  have  composed  slowly  and  labo- 
riously. No  work,  however,  lakes  a  permanent  place  in 
literature  that  is  not  distinguished  for  the  perfection  of  its 
st)ie  as  well  as  for  the  solidit)'  of  its  thought. 


STYLE. 


133 


The  excellence  of  the  style  of  any  piece  of  writing  de- 
pends primarily  upon  two  things: 

( 1 )  Up 071  the  choice  of  words. 

(2)  Upon  the  construction  of  the  sentences. 

The  first  requisite,  namely,  the  choice  of  words,  is  treated 
under  the  head  of  Diction. 

Diction. 

Diction  is  that  property  of  style  which  has  reference  to 
the  words  and  phrases  used  by  a  writer  or  speaker. 

Words  at  best  are  only  imperfect  representations  of  our 
thoughts,  in  general  expressing  too  little  or  too  much. 

Therefore,  ' '  A  man  that  seeketh  precise  truth  had  need 
to  remember  what  every  name  he  useth  stands  for,  and  to 
place  it  accordingly ;  or  else  he  will  find  himself  entangled 
in  words  as  a  bird  in  lime-twigs;  the  more  he  struggles, 
the  more  belimed." — Hobbcs. 

The  secret  of  literary  power  is  chiefly  the  art  of  putting 
the  right  word  in  the  right  place ;  hence,  it  is  important 
that  a  writer  or  speaker  should  have  a  great  number  of 
words  at  his  command,  and  that  he  should  have  such  a 
knowledge  of  the  precise  meaning  of  each  as  to  be  able  in 
all  cases  to  select  just  that  word  which  expresses  most  per- 
fectly the  idea  intended.  As  a  means  towards  acquiring 
such  knowledge,  it  is  well  to  carry  out  the  following  sug- 
gestions: 

1.  Always  note  a  new  word,  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  its 
precise  meaning  and  use. 

2.  Make  constant  use  of  a  dictio)iary.  It  is  the  practice 
of  many  great  scholars  never  to  allow  a  word  to  pass  with- 


134  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

out  an  examination,  if  there  is  the  least  doubt  about  its 
origin,  pronunciation,  meaning,  or  spelli-ng. 

3.  Study  etymology.  It  is  useful  to  trace  out  the  origin, 
composition,  and  primary  meaning  of  words.  It  should 
not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  many  words  do  not  now 
mean  what  they  once  did,  or  what  their  derivation  would 
seem  to  imply.  The  etymology  of  "prevent"  signifies  to 
go  before.      In  this  sense  it  was  once  actually  used;  as, 

"I  prevented  the  dawning  of  the  morning." — Ps.  119. 

"Your  mQss&ngQx prevented  mine  but  an  hour." — Bishop 
Taylor. 

The  accepted  meaning  of  the  word  at  the  present  time 
is  to  hinder. 

"Resent"  means  etymologically  to  reciprocate  or  re- 
spond to  any  kind  of  feeling,  good  or  bad.  It  once  had 
this  meaning.  Three  centuries  ago  a  man  could  speak  of 
rese)itmg  a  benefit,  as  well  as  resenting  an  injury.  The  use 
of  later  times  restricts  the  word  to  the  single  meaning; 
hence  "resent"  is  now  to  take  ill. 

4.  Seek  good  society.  There  is  great  advantage  to  be 
derived  from  a  frequent  association  with  intelligent  and 
cultivated  persons.  One  who  has  this  advantage  will  ac- 
cjuire  a  good  vocabulary  without  great  effort. 

5.  Read  the  best  hooks  carefully.  Observe  the  selection 
and  combination  of  words  as  illustrated  by  the  best  au- 
thors, if  )()u  would  be  profited  b)'  formal  rhetorical  rules. 
You  must  not,  howexcr,  imitate  }'oiu'  author  in  a  shu'ish 
s])it*it. 

The  words  of  any  composition  should  be  pure,  ai)pro- 
priate,  precise,  and  simple.  We  shall,  therefore,  consider 
separate!)',  (i)  Purity,  (2)  Propriety,  (3)  Precision,  and 
(4)  Simplicit)'. 


STYLE.  135 

Purity. — A  word  is  said  to  be  pure  when  it  belongs  to 
the  language  as  it  is  at  present  used  by  the  best  writers 
and  speakers.     Campbell  defines  good  usage  to  be : 

(i)  Reputable,  or  the  practice  of  intelligent  and  educated 
writers ; 

(2)  National,  as  opposed  to  provincial  and  foreign ; 

(3)  Present,  or  the  usage  of  the  generation  in  which  one 
lives. 

A  violation  of  purity  is  called  a  Barbarism.  To  avoid 
such  the  following  rules  are  given : 

1.  Avoid  obsolete  words,  or  such  as  were  once  in  good 
use,  but  have  ceased  to  be  employed  by  the  best  writers. 

Language,  like  everything  else  in  the  world,  is  subject 
to  change.  Some  words  go  out  of  fashion ;  some  alter 
their  meaning;  some  grow  less  in  value;  some  rise  in  im- 
portance; while  here  and  there  one  wakes  up  from  a  long 
sleep  to  bear  again  its  burden  of  thought.  There  is  little 
probability  that  an  obsolete  expression  will  be  used  except 
by  deliberate  intention  ;  to  use  it  willfully  in  ordinary  prose 
is  affectation.  It  is  allowable,  however,  where  the  writer, 
as  in  a  historical  novel,  wishes  to  suggest  antiquity, — to 
characterize  the  time  in  which  the  scene  is  laid.  Within 
moderate  limits  it  is  also  allowable  in  poetry: 

I  wis  in  all  the  Senate 

There  was  no  heart  so  bold. — Macau/ay. 

Whiloin  in  Albion's  isle  there  dwelt  a  youth 
Who  ne  in  virtue's  ways  did  take  delight ; 
Ah,  me!  in  sooth  he  was  a  shameless  wight, 
Childe  Harold  was  he  /light. — Byron. 

But  come,  thou  goddess  fair  and  free, 
In  heaven  ycleped  Euphrosyne. — Milton. 


136  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

We  should  also  avoid  obsolescent  words ;  that  is,  such 
words  as  are  gradually  vanishing  from  the  vocabulary  of 
the  most  polished  writers.  Among  them  we  find  betzvixt, 
amongst,  frozvard,  Jiearken,  whilst,  peradventurc,  trow,  quoth, 
etc.  No  effort  should  be  made  to  retain  them,  for  their 
disuse  implies  their  uselessness. 

2.  Avoid  newly-coined  ■words,  or  such  words  as  have 
not  received  the  sanction  of  good  writers.  A  word  is  not, 
however,  to  be  rejected  simply  because  it  is  new,  for  some 
of  the  best  words  in  the  language  have  been  recently  in- 
troduced. Learning,  invention,  discovery,  art,  fashion, 
popular  commotions,  foreign  intercourse,  the  progress  of 
thought,  have  brought  to  the  English  language  accessions 
of  beauty  and  strength  in  every  age  from  Chaucer  to  the 
present.  So  long  as  the  language  has  life  this  process 
must  continue.  But  the  best  course  for  the  young  writer 
or  speaker,  striving  after  purity  of  style,  is  to  shun  newly- 
coined  words.  He  may,  indeed,  have  occasion  to  speak 
of  a  new  invention  or  a  new  idea,  for  which  there  is  no 
word  but  that  originating  with  the  invention  or  idea  itself; 
but  in  all  ordinary  cases  the  safe  plan  is  to  select  only 
Well-known  and  fully  sanctioned  words.  Ouintilian  says, 
"  Prefer  the  oldest  of  the  new  and  the  newest  of  the  old." 
The  same  idea  is  expressed  in  rhyme : 

In  words,  as  fashions,  the  same  rule  will  hold, 
Alike  fantastic  if  too  new  or  old  : 
lie  not  the  Hrst  by  whom  the  new  are  tried. 
Nor  yet  the  last  to  lay  the  old  aside. — Pope. 

3.  Avoid  all  foreign  words. — This  includes  words  from 
both  the  ancient  and  modern  languages.  Nothing  is  more 
indicative  of  affectation  and  pedantry  than  a  free  use  of 
Latin,  Italian,  and  French  expressions.      A  writer  whose 


STYLE.  137 

heroes  are  always  marked  by  an  air  disiingiic,  whose  vile 
men  are  sure  to  be  blase,  whose  lady  friends  dance  a  iner- 
vi'illc,  and  who  himself,  when  lolling  on  the  sofa,  luxuri- 
ates in  the  dolcc  far  nicntc,  and  wonders  when  he  will 
begin  his  magnum  opus,  may  possibly  have  a  slight  ac- 
quaintance with  the  foreign  languages  with  which  he  has 
attempted  to  vary  his  discourse,  but  it  is  evident  that  his 
stock  of  good  English  words  is  small. 

The  late  poet  and  journalist  Bryant  used  to  say  that  he 
never  felt  the  temptation  to  use  a  foreign  word  without 
being  able  to  find  in  English  a  word  that  expressed  his 
nieaning  with  more  exactness  and  felicity. 

There  are,  however,  certain  words  borrowed  from  other 
languages  that  have  become  so  thoroughly  incorporated 
into  our  language  that  they  are  properly  regarded  as  En- 
glish words.  The  use  of  such  words  is  not  a  violation  of 
purity.  For  example,  such  words  as  igmiramus,  omnibus, 
quorum,  and  paradise,  though  foreign,  are  familiar  to  ordi- 
nary readers.  They  also  express  the  meaning  more  pre- 
cisely than  any  translation  could  do;  hence  there  would 
be  more  pedantry  in  translating  them  than  in  using  them 
in  the  form  with  which  the  public  is  already  familiar. 

4.  Avoid  all  provincialisms,  or  local  forms  of  expres- 
sion. Almost  every  part  of  the  country  has  certain  local- 
isms. These  form  no  part  of  reputable,  current  English. 
The  standard  of  purity  is  not  the  usage  in  any  particular 
village,  town,  city,  or  state,  but  the  practice  of  intelligent 
and  educated  authors  throughout  the  English-speaking 
world. 

These  vulgarisms  include  all  low  or  slang  words,  which, 
as  a  matter  of  morals,  ought  to  be  avoided.  This  style  of 
speech  is  generally  low,  not  seldom  silly.  In  serious  or 
dignified  writings  it  is  alwaj-s  a  blemish. 


138  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

"A  tendency  to  slang,  to  colloquial  inelegancies,  and 
ev^en  vulgarities,"  says  Professor  Whitney,  "is  the  beset- 
ting sin  against  which  we,  as  Americans,  have  especially 
to  guard  and  struggle." 

5.  Avoid  all  technical  terms,  or  such  as  belong  to  spe- 
cial arts  or  sciences.  These  are  usually  known  only  to  those 
who  understand  the  specialties  to  which  they  apply.  They 
may  be  used  in  addressing  persons  who  understand  the  art 
or  science  to  which  the  words  belong,  for  then  they  are 
much  more  brief  and  intelligible  than  the  words  of  ordi- 
nary use.  Many  words  once  purely  technical  have  en- 
tered into  common  use,  and  may  now  be  employed  with 
freedom. 

It  is  not  easy  to  tell  just  where  to  draw  the  line;  but 
where  there  is  doubt  as  to  whether  a  word  will  be  under- 
stood, it  is  a  safe  rule  to  employ  some  other,  or  even  a 
circumlocution. 

EXERCISE  XLI. 

Direction. —  Form  sentences,  where  you  can,  containing  good  English 
equivalents  for  the  italicized  expressions: 

1.  In  the  following  year  the  tables  were  turned,  and  the  party  of 
the  Queen-mother  came  into  power. 

2.  He  curried  favor  with  the  leader  of  his  party. 

3.  A  house  on  Broad  street  was  burglarized  last  night. 

4.  He  gave  himself  away. 

5.  Kate  made  her  debut  last  evening. 

6.  The  old  man's  constant  cry  was,  "  O  temporal     O  mores l" 

7.  Having  acquired  the  savoir  faire,  he  is  never  afraid  of  making 
a  faux  pas,  and  in  every  conversation  plunges  in  medias  res. 

8.  It  is  impossible  to  extirp  it. 

9.  It  is  pro  bono  publico. 

10.  His  fastidiosity  is  unbearable. 


STYLE. 


139 


11.  This  was  said  .?/^(^  ■z/^c<?. 

12.  He  lived  like  a  poor  homunculus,  in  a  glass  bottle. 

13.  The  Templar,  who  was  now  hors  de  combat,  was  borne  within 
the  castle  walls. 

14.  The  enterprise  did  not  pan  out  as  we  had  hoped. 

15.  They  have  the  matter  sjib  judice. 

16.  He  lost  not  one  minute  in  picking  and  choosing — no  shilly 
shally  in  John. 

17.  During  the  night  the  army  skedaddled. 

18.  Snub  the  rope. 

19.  We  raised  our  eyes  to  the  handsomely  decorated  soffit. 

20.  The  soi-disa?it  prince  dismissed  his  followers. 

21.  His  supper  was  bread  and  whitsul. 

22.  He  is  enthused  with  the  project. 

23.  Not  by  a  long  shot. 

24.  The  students  at  the  College  seem  bent  ott  going  it. 

25.  The  young  man  was  tip  on  his  ear. 

26.  Shall  I  go  on,  or  have  I  said  enow? 

Direction.  — Bring  into  the  class  as  many  such  expressions,  and  give  good 
Enghsh  equivalents  for  them. 

Propriety. — Propriety  consists  in  using  words  in  their 
proper  sense.  Here,  as  in  the  case  of  purity,  good  u.sage 
is  the  principal  test.  It  matters  Httle  what  the  primary 
elements  of  a  word  signify,  or  what  the  meaning  of  a  word 
has  been ;  we  must  either  use  the  words  as  others  under- 
stand them,  or  violate  propriety.  Improprieties  arise  chiefly 
from  a  seeming  analogy  between  words,  or  from  ignorance 
of  their  authorized  meaning. 

Many  words  have  acquired  in  actual  use  a  meaning  very 
different  from  what  they  once  possessed.  The  word  "let" 
once  meant  to  hinder;  but  now  it  is  used  as  equivalent 
to  "allow."  "Edify"  originally  signified  to  build  up,  as 
a  house  is  built,  but  now  it  is  applied  only  to  mental 
improvement.  "Station"  was  used  for  the  manner  of 
standing,  posture;  now  it  means  place.      "Admire"  once 


140  coMPosrnoN  and  rhetoric. 

meant  to  wonder  at,  but  now  it  means  only  to  regard  with 
esteem  and  reverence. 

To  attain  propriety  we  must  be  guided  by  the  following 
rules : 

I.  Avoid  confounding  Words  from  the  Same  Rad- 
ical.— They  do  not  always  mean  the  same  thing.  Thus, 
"observation"  signifies  the  act  or  habit  of  noticing;  as, 
"An  obscrvatioji  of  the  habits  of  the  lower  animals  furnishes 
many  interesting  facts. "  "  Observance  "  means  the  celebra- 
tion of  anything,  or  holding  it  sacred;  as,  "They  require  a 
strict  observance  of  truth  and  justice."  We  should  not  say, 
''observation  of  the  Sabbath."  Yet  we  may  say,  the  man 
observes  [notices]  an  action,  or  observes  [celebrates]  the 
Sabbath. 

"Contemptible"  and  "contemptuous"  differ  in  this: 
Co}iteniptible  means  that  which  deserves  contempt,  as  a 
contemptible  act;  contcviptiioits  means  filled  with  contempt, 
as  a  contemptuous  reply. 

"Respectfully"  and  "respectively"  are  sometimes  con- 
founded. Respectfully  means  in  a  respectful  manner;  re- 
spectively, relating  to  each;  as,  "Let  each  man  respectively 
perform  his  duty." 

"Predict"  and  "predicate"  mean  respectively /cvvA'// 
and  assert. 

"Construe"  and  "construct."  Writers  construct;  read- 
ers construe.  We  construct  a  sentence  when  we  form  or 
make  one ;  we  constnie  when  we  explain  its  construction. 

2.  Use  Words  in  their  Accepted  Sense. — This  requires 
that  we  attach  to  every  word  only  such  a  meaning  as  will 
be  generally  understood  to  belong  to  it.  Thus,  the  proper 
meaning  of  "aggravate"  is  to  add  weight  to,  or  to  make 
worse.      It   is   sometimes   incorrectly   used   to   signify   the 


STYLE.  141 

same  as  "irritate."  It  is  correct  to  say,  "The  offense 
was  aggravated  by  the  motive."  It  is  incorrect  to  say, 
"  He  aggravates  me  by  his  impudence." 

The  following  are  given  as  examples  of  words  commonly 
misused: 

1.  But,  for  that,  or  if;  as,  "I  have  no  doubt  but  he  will 
come";    "I  shall  not  wonder  but  that  was  the  cause." 

2.  Plenty,  for  plentiful;  as,  "That  measure  will  make 
money  plenty  in  every  man's  pocket." 

3.  I  liavc  got,  for  I  have.  Possession  is  completely  ex- 
pressed by  Jiave ;  get  expresses  attainment  by  voluntary 
exertion.  A  man  may  say,  "I  have  got  more  money  than 
my  neighbor  has,  because  I  have  been  more  industrious"; 
but  he  can  not  with  propriety  say,  "I  have  got  a  long 
nose,"  unless  it  be  an  artificial  one;  nor  can  he  properly 
speak  of  "getting  a  cold,"  "getting  left  by  the  train," 
' '  getting  crazy, "  etc.  The  idea  that  get  expresses  ' '  to  come 
into  possession  of,"  as,  "He  got  the  estate  through  his 
mother,"  is  common,  but  it  has  not  the  sanction  of  good 
writers.  Herbert  is  quoted  as  authority  for  using  "got" 
in  this  sense:  "He  has  got  the  face  of  a  man,"  but  even 
here  we  note  not  so  much  the  expression  of  simple  posses- 
sion as  the  effect  of  voluntary  exertion,  since  the  impress 
of  manliness  upon  the  face  is  due  less  to  growth,  or  phys- 
ical development,  than  to  the  formation  of  manly  character 
by  means  of  noble  purpose  and  high  endeavor. 

4.  Differ  ivith,  for  differ  from.  Writers  differ  from  one 
another  in  opinion  with  regard  to  the  particle  we  should 
use  with  this  verb.  Some  say  they  differ  ivith,  others  that 
they  differ  from,  their  neighbors  in  opinion.  The  weight 
of  authority  is  on  the  side  of  always  using  from.  ' '  I  differ, 
as  to  this  matter,  from  Bishop  Lowth." — Cobbett. 

5.  Wearies,   for  is  wearied;   as,    "One  wearies  of  such 


142  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

nonsense."  Weary  is  a  transitive  verb,  having  either  an 
active  or  a  passive  form;  thus,  "I  weary  thee,"  or,  "The 
soldier  is  wearied  with  long  marching." 

6.  Anyhoiv  is  exceeding  vulgar ;  it  should  be  /;/  any 
manner.  "If  the  damage  can  be  anyhow  repaired"  should 
be,  "If  the  damage  can  be  in  any  manner  repaired." 

7.  It  were,  for  it  would  be;  as,  "It  were  an  intolerable 
spectacle  should  they  behold  one  of  their  fellows  in  the 
agonies  of  death." 

8.  Like  I  did,  for  as  I  did.  Like  should  not  be  used 
as  a  conjunction;  with  it  a  verb  is  neither  expressed  nor 
understood.  As,  on  the  contrary,  requires  a  verb  either 
expressed  or  understood. 

9.  Less,  for  fewer;  as,  "Not  less  than  fifty  persons." 
Less  relates  to  quantity  ;  fezver,  to  number. 

10.  /  donbt,  for  I  doubt  whether;  as,  "I  doubt  such  is 
the  true  meaning  of  the  constitution."  Whether  implies 
"which  of  two";  hence,  in  cases  where  hesitation  exists 
between  two  opinions,  two  meanings,  two  courses,  etc., 
we  may  doubt  whether  our  choice  is  the  wise  one. 

1 1 .  Likewise,  for  also.  Likeivise  means  in  like  manner. 
It  couples  actions  or  states  of  being ;  while  also  classes  to- 
gether things  or  qualities.  "He  did  it  likewise  "  means, 
"He  did  it  in  like  manner." 

12.  Avocation,  for  vocation.  Avocations  engage  a  man's 
attention  when  he  is  "called  away  from"  his  regular  busi- 
ness or  vocation.  Avocations  may  be  music,  visits,  games, 
hunting,  fishing,  etc. 

13.  But  that,  for  that;  as,  "  He  never  doubts  but  that  he 
knows  their  intentions." 

14.  Had  have  is  a  very  low  vulgarism.  "Had  I  have 
seen  him  "  should  be,   "  Had  I  seen  him." 

15.  Party,  for  person.      An  English  witness  once  testi- 


STYLE. 


143 


fied  that  he  saw  "a  short  party"  (meaning  person)  "go 
over  the  bridge."  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  it 
takes  several  persons  to  make  a  party. 

16.  Try,  for  make;  as,  "Try  the  experiment." 

17.  Deceiving,  for  trying  to  deceive.  For  example,  a 
person  says  to  another,  "You  are  deceiving  me,"  when  he 
means  exactly  the  opposite ;  namely,  ' '  You  are  trying  to 
deceive  me." 

18.  EitJier,  neitJier,  and  both  are  applicable  only  to  two 
objects.  "Either  of  the  three"  should  be,  "Any  one  of 
the  three." 

19.  Seldom  or  ever  is  a  common  vulgarism.  Say,  "Sel- 
dom, if  ever."  * 

20.  Banister,  for  baluster  or  balustrade.  Banister  is  a 
corruption  of  baluster. 

21.  Illy,  for  ill.  There  is  no  such  word  as  illy.  Ill  is 
the  noun,  adjective,  and  adverb. 

22.  Least,  for  less;  as,  "Of  two  evils,  choose  the  least." 
Less  is  the  comparative  degree  oi  little ;  least,  the  superla- 
tive. When  two  things  are  compared,  the  comparative  is 
used ;  when  more  than  two,  the  superlative. 

23.  From  thence,  from  whence,  for  thence  or  whence.  As 
the  adverbs  thence  and  ivhence  literally  supply  the  place  of 
a  noun  and  preposition,  there  is  a  solecism  in  employing  a 
preposition  in  conjunction  with  them. 

24.  No,  for  not;  as,  "  Whether  I  am  there  or  no. "  As 
an  adjective  "no"  is  an  abbreviation  of  "none";  as  an  ad- 
verb, of  "not."  Hence  the  phrase  "whether  or  no"  is 
appropriate  only  when  there  is  a  suppressed  noun  ;  ' '  whether 


K  While  there  is  authority  for  "  seldom  or  never,"  we  find  the  terms  inconsist- 
ent: seldom  means  happening  rarely,  «^i;^r  occurring  at  no  time,  either  past  or 
present.  Hence,  "Seldom  or  never  has  an  English  word  two  full  accents,"  would 
doubtless  be  better  rendered,  "Seldom,  if  ever,"  etc. 


144  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

or  not"   is  the  proper  phrase,  if  it  is  a  verb  that  is  sup- 
pressed. 

25.  A  co)ifiniicd  invalid.  A  person,  weak  and  infirm, 
is  an  invalid;  whatever  is  made  firm,  or  is  strengthened, 
estabHshed,  or  rendered  certain,  is  confirmed.  Hence,  we 
have  here  a  contradiction  in  terms.  How  can  a  man  be  a 
confirmed,  or  strengthened,  invaHd? 

26.  SucJi,  for  so;  as,  "I  never  saw  such  a  high  spire." 
This  means,  ' '  I  never  saw  a  high  spire  of  such  a  form  or  of 
such  architecture";  whereas  the  speaker,  in  all  probability, 
means  only  that  he  never  saw  so  high  a  spire. 

27.  Hozi\  for  that.  "I  have  heard  how  some  critics 
have  been  pacified  with  claret  and  a  supper."  Hozu  is  an 
adverb,  and  can  not  be  used  as  a  conjunction.  Older  writers 
frequently  followed  it  by  tJiat,  but  this  practice  is  no  longer 
in  good  use ;  as,  "  Knowing  Jioxv  that  part  of  the  South 
Sea  was  utterly  unknown." — Bacon. 

28.  Directly,  for  as  soon  as.  ' '  Directly  he  came,  we 
started  home."  Directly,  in  the  sense  of  as  soon  as,  has  not 
the  sanction  of  careful  writers;  it  must  be  regarded  as  a 
gross  solecism. 

29.  Equally  as  ivell,  for  equally  well ;  as,  "  It  will  do 
equally  as  well."  Equally,  an  adverb  of  degree,  should 
modify  %vell ;  hence  there  is  a  solecism  in  joining  them  by 
the  conjunction. 

30.  All  of  them.  As  the  etymology  of  the  preposition 
of  shows  its  primary  meaning  to  be  from,  or  out  from,  it 
can  not  be  correct  to  say  all  of  them.  We  may  say,  ' '  Take 
one  of  them,"  or,  "Take  two  of  them,"  or,  "Take  them 
all";  but  the  phrase  we  are  criticising  is  wholly  unjustifia- 
ble. 

31.  Quantity,  for  number;  as,  "A  quantity  of  books." 
We  may  use  quantity  in  speaking  of  a  collection  or  mass; 


STYLE.  145 

but  in  speaking  of  individual  objects,  we  must  use  the  word 
number.  "A  quantity  of  meat"  or,  "A  quantity  of  iron  " 
is  good  English,  but  not,  "A  quantity  of  bank-notes. "  We 
may  say,  "A  quantity  of  wood,"  but  we  should  say,  "A 
number  of  sticks." 

32.  Whole,  for  all.  Whole  refers  to  the  component 
parts  of  a  single  body ;  and  is,  therefore,  singular  in  mean- 
ing. ' '  The  whole  Russians  are  inspired  with  the  belief  that 
their  mission  is  to  conquer  the  world."  This  can  only 
mean  that  those  Russians  who  are  entire, — who  have  not 
lost  a  leg,  an  arm,  or  some  other  part  of  the  body, — are 
inspired  with  the  belief  of  which  he  speaks. 

33.  Stopphig,  for  staying.  "The  Hon.  John  Jones  is 
stopping  at  the  Gait  House."  In  reading  such  a  statement 
as  this,  we  are  tempted  to  ask,  When  will  Hon.  J.  Jones 
stop  stopping  ?  A  man  may  stop  many  times  at  a  place,  or 
on  a  journey,  but  he  can  not  continue  stopping.  One  may 
stop  at  a  hotel  without  becoming  a  guest. 

34.  Indices,  for  indexes.  * '  We  have  examined  our  in- 
dices."  Indices  are  algebraic  signs;  tables  of  contents  are 
indexes. 

35.  Rendition,  for  rendering;  as,  "Mr.  Barrett's  rendi- 
tion of  Hamlet  was  admirable. "  Rendition  means  surrender, 
giving  up,  relinquishing  to  another,  as  when  we  speak  of 
the  rendition  of  a  beleaguered  town  to  the  besieger,  or  of  a 
pledge  upon  the  satisfaction  of  a  debt. 

36.  Condign.  "  He  does  not  deserve  the  condign  pun- 
ishment he  has  received."  As  the  meaning  of  condign  is 
that  which  is  deserved,  we  have  here  a  contradiction  in  terms, 
the  statement  being  equivalent  to  this:  "He  does  not  de- 
serve the  deserved  punishment  he  has  received." 

37.  Folks,  for  folk.  As  folk  implies  plurality,  the  "s" 
is  needless. 

Rhet.— 13. 


146  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

38.  Older,  for  elder.  Older  is  properly  applied  to  objects, 
animate  and  inanimate ;  elder,  to  rational  beings. 

39.  Overfloivn,  for  overflowed  ;  as,  "  The  river  has  over- 
flown its  banks."  Floivcd  is  the  past  participle  of  "to 
flow";/^z£;«,  of  "to  fly." 

40.  Accord,  for  grant.  "He  accorded  them  {or,  to  them), 
all  they  asked  for."  To  accord  with,  means  properly  to 
agree  or  to  suit;  as,    "  He  accorded  with  my  views." 

41.  Almost,  as  an  adjective;  as,  "  The  almost  universality 
of  opinion. "  We  might  properly  say,  "The  opinion  is 
almost  universal." 

42.  Mutual,  for  common,  or  reciprocal.  Mutual  means 
an  interchange  between  two  at  the  same  time ;  reciprocaL 
existing  in  one  by  way  of  return  to  something  previously 
done  by  another ;  common,  belonging  to  all  in  common. 
Hence,  we  may  speak  of  a  mutual  desire,  reciprocal  re- 
proaches, common  country.  Dean  Alford  justly  protests 
against  the  stereotyped  vulgarism,  "a  mutual  friend." 
Mutual  is  applicable  to  sentiments  and  acts,  but  not  to 
persons.  Two  friends  may  have  a  mutual  love,  but  for 
either  to  speak  of  a  third  person  as  being  "their  mutual 
friend,"  is  absurd.  The  expression  should  be,  "their  com- 
mon friend." 

43.  Nice.  One  of  the  most  offensive  barbarisms  now 
prevalent  is  the  use  of  this  pet  word  to  express  almost  every 
kind  of  approbation,  and  almost  every  quality.  Nice  im- 
plies a  union  of  delicacy  and  exactness.  In  nice  food,  cook- 
ery, taste,  etc. ,  delicacy  predominates ;  in  nice  discrimina- 
tion, management,  workmanship,  etc.,  exactness  predomi- 
nates. Lately,  however,  a  new  sense  has  been  introduced 
which  excludes  them  both  ;  this  new  sense  is  pleasing,  and 
it  is  a  common  thing  to  hear  of  "A  nice  girl,"  "A  nice 
excursion,"  "A  nice  book."     Of  the  vulgarity  of  such  ex- 


STYLE.  147 

pressions  as  "A  nice  man"  (meaning  a  good  or  pleasing 
man),  "A  nice  day,"  "A  nice  party,"  etc.,  there  can  be  no 
question.  Archdeacon  Hare  stigmatizes  the  word  nice  a 
' '  characterless  domino. " 

44.  Looks  beautifully.  The  error  arises  from  confound- 
ing look  in  the  sense  of  to  direct  the  eye,  and  look  in  the 
sense  of  to  seem,  to  appear.  In  English,  many  verbs  take 
an  adjective  with  them  to  form  the  predicate ;  as,  "  He  fell 
ill  ";  "  He  feels  cold  ";  "  Her  smiles  amid  the  blushes  love- 
lier show."  No  cultivated  person  would  say,  "She  is  beau- 
tifully," or,  "  She  seems  beautifully,"  yet  these  phrases  are 
no  more  improper  than,  "  She  looks  beautifully. "  We  qual- 
ify what  a  person  docs  by  an  adverb  ;  what  a  person  is,  or 
sccins  to  be,  by  an  adjective  ;  as,  ' '  She  looks  coldly  on 
him  ";    "  She  looks  cold. " 

45.  Myself,  for  I;  as,  "Mrs.  Smith  and  myself  will  be 
happy  to  dine  with  you";  "  Prof.  W.  and  myself  have  ex- 
amined the  work."  The  proper  use  of  myself  ox  thyself  [s 
either  as  a  reflexive  pronoun,  or  for  the  sake  of  distinction 
and  emphasis;  as. 

These  are  thy  glorious  works,  Parent  of  good, 

Ahnighty  !     Thine  this  universal  frame, 

Thus  wondrous  fair;  thyself  how  wondrous  then. — Milton. 

46.  Previous,  for  previously ;  as,  "This  occurred  previous 
to  my  leaving  Europe."  To  describe  whatever  goes  before 
in  time,  we  use  the  adjective /rr^'/w/^;  as,  "Sound  from 
the  mountain,  previous  to  the  storm,  rolls  o'er  the  mutter- 
ing earth." — TJwnison.  To  express  the  time  of  an  occur- 
rence, we  use  the  ^<\\i:xh previously ;  as,  "A  plan  previously 
formed." 

47.  Try  and,  for  try  to;  as,  "Try  and  do  it."  ''Try  to 
learn, "  ' '  Try  to  lift  a  weight, "  "  The  horses  tried  to  draw  the 
load,"  are  instances  of  correct  usage.     Try  is  followed  by  and 


1 48  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

only  when  the  conjunction  occurs  between  root-forms.  Thus, 
in  the  sentence,  "  If  I  /;;;;'  and  find  it,  I  shall  be  amply  re- 
paid," both  try  and  Jin d  are  equally  contingent  as  regards 
the  principal  verb. 

48.  Ki'stk'c,  for  uneasy  or  restless;  as,  "A  restive  horse." 
A  restive  horse  is  one  that  balks;  but  horses  that  are  rest- 
less or  frisky  are  frequently  called  restive.  The  following 
is  an  example  of  its  correct  use :  ' '  The  beasts  which  were 
to  drag  him  to  the  gallows  became  restive,  and  went  back." 
— Macaiilay. 

49.  Alhtdc,  for  refer.  To  allude  means  to  hint  at  in  an 
indirect  way. 

50.  Balance,  for  remainder;  as,  "The  balance  of  the 
people  went  home."  Webster  says:  "To  transfer  the 
word  'balance'  to  the  general  concerns  of  life,  and  speak 
of  '  the  balance  of  the  week, '  '  the  balance  of  the  evening, ' 
etc.,  meaning  remainder,  is  a  gross  vulgarism,  to  be  avoided 
by  every  one  who  does  not  mean  to-  'smell  of  the  shop.'  " 

51.  Calculate,  for  design  or  intend,  or  as  an  equivalent  to 
likely,  apt;  as,  "Sensational  newspapers  are  calculated  to 
injure  the  morals  of  the  young."  They  are  not  calculated 
to  do  so ;  but  they  are  certainly  likely  to  do  so.  Calculate 
means  to  compute,  to  reckon,  to  work  out  by  figures; 
hence,  the  essential  thought  expressed  by  it  is  the  careful 
adjustment  of  means  to  an  end.  Thus, ' '  Religion  is  calculated 
for  our  benefit." — Til  I  at  son. 

52.  Couple,  for  two;  as,  "He  gave  me  a  couple  of 
peaches."     A  couple  means  properly  tivo  that  are  coupled. 

53.  Denu-an,  for  debase;  as,  "  I  would  not  demean  myself 
by  doing  so."  To  demean  is  to  behave  in  any  way,  and  has 
no  connection  with  the  term  mean. 

54.  Emblem,  for  motto,  sentiment,  or  meaning;  gener- 
ally  applied  to  flowers.      "The  emblem  of  this  flower  is 


STYLE. 


149 


'modesty.'"     In  this  case  the  flower  itself  is  the  enibleni: 
"modesty"  is  the  meaning  gwtn  to  it. 

55.  Expect,  for  suppose,  or  think;  as,  "I  expect  you  had 
a  pretty  hard  time  of  it  yesterday."  Expect  refers  only  to 
that  which  is  to  come. 

56.  Inaugurate,  for  begin  or  set  up.  To  iuaiigtirate  is  to 
induct  into  office  with  solemn  ceremonies ;  thus  we  speak 
of  the  President's  being  inaugurated.  But  we  can  not  in- 
augurate a  thing. 

57.  Name,  for  mention;  as,  "I  never  named  the  matter 
to  any  one."  Name  is  properly  used  in  the  sense  of  "giv- 
ing a  name  to,"  "mentioning  by  name,"  or  "designating 
for  any  purpose  by  name";  but  to  use  it  interchangeably 
with  "mention"  is  without  authority. 

Be  careful  in  the  7ise  of  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  other 
particles.  When  prepositions  follow  nouns,  verbs,  or  ad- 
jectives, select  those  which  usage  has  sanctioned.  The  fol- 
lowing list  from  Angus'  Hand-Book  of  the  English  Language 
will  be  of  use  for  reference : 


Accord  with  (neuter). 

Accord  to  (active). 

Accuse  c/ crime,  by  one's  friend. 

Acquit  persons  of. 

Affinity  to  or  betwetm. 

Adapted  to  a  thing  or  for  a  purpose. 

Agreeable  to. 

Agree  with   persons,  to  things, 

among  ourselves. 
Amuse  with,  at,  in. 
Angry  with  (a  person),  at  (a  thing). 
Anxious y^r,  about,  sometimes  on. 
Attend  to  (listen). 
Attend  upoft  (wait). 
Averse  to,  when  describing  feel- 


ing, from  when  describing  an 

act  or  state. 
Bestow  -iipon. 
Boast  of. 
Call  071. 
Change  y^ir. 

Confer  on  (give),  witJi  (converse). 
Confide  in,  when  intransitive; 

when  transitive,  confide  it  to. 
Conformable  to ;  so  the  verb  and 

adverb. 
Compliance  with. 
Consonant  to,  sometimes  with. 
Correspond    with    (by    letter),    to 

(similar  things). 


1^0 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


Dependent  oti,  ttpon. 

Derogate /r^w/. 

Derogatory  to  a  person  or  thing. 

Die  of  ox  by. 

Differ  from. 

Difference  7i'i//i  a  person. 

Difference  bctivecn  things. 

Difficulty  in. 

Diminution  of. 

Disappointed  of  what  we  do  not 
get;  and  in  it  when  we  get  it 
and  it  fails  to  answer  our  ex- 
pectations. 

Disapprove  of. 

Discouragement  to. 

Dissentyr^w. 

Distinguished/t'r,/r<w/,  sometimes 
by.  ^ 

Eager  in. 

Entertain  by  (a  person),  luith  (a 
thing). 

Exception  is  taken  to  statements  ; 
sometimes  against;  the  verb  has 
sometimes  yrcw. 

Expert  at  or  in. 

Fall  under. 

Y\Q.Q.fro7n. 

I'rightened  at. 

(jlad  <?/■  something  gained,  and  of 
or  at  what  befalls  another. 

Convenient  to  or  for. 

Conversant  7uith  persons;  in  af- 
fairs; <2(^^/^/ subjects. 


Martyr/;;-  a  cause,  to  a  disease. 
Marry  to. 
Need  of. 
Notice  of. 
Obsei'vance  of. 
Prejudicial  to. 
Prejudice  against. 
Profit  by. 

Provide _/"^r,  with,  against. 
Recreant  to,  from. 
Reconcile  to. 
Replete  with. 
Resemblance  fo.. 
Resolve  on. 
Respect /^r,  to. 
Grieve  at,  for. 
Independent  of. 
Insist  upon. 

Made  of,  for,  from,  with. 
Reduce  A?  a  state;  //«^/t'r  subjection. 
Regard /(?r  or  to. 
Smile  at,  upon. 
Swerve  from. 

Taste  of  what  is  actually  enjoyed, 
for  what  we  have  the  capacity 
of  enjoying. 
Think  ^or  on. 
Thirst  for,  after. 
True  of  (predicable). 
True  to  (faithful). 
Wait  <?«  (serve),  at  (a  place), /t^r 

(await). 
Worthy  of. 


Many  expressions  have  become  so  fixed  that  a  change 
would  violate  propriety.      Bain  mentions  the  following: 


Use  or  einploy  means. 
Take  steps. 
Acquire  knowledge. 


Take  degrees. 
Contract  habits. 
Lay  up  treasures. 


STYLE. 


151 


Oblain  rewards. 
Win  prizes. 
Gain  celebrity. 
Arrive  at  honors. 
Conduct  affairs. 
Espouse  a  side. 
Interpose  authority. 


Pursue  a  course. 
Turn  to  account. 
Serve  for  a  warning. 
Bear  malice. 
Profess  principles. 
Cultivate  acquaintance. 
Pass  over  in  silence. 


EXERCISE  XLII. 

Direction. — Substitute  appropriate  expressions  for  the  italicized  words: 

1.  They  never  swerved  in  their  allegiance  to  him. 

2.  Favors  are  not  always  bestowed  to  the  most  deserving. 

3.  A  strong  young  woman  was  employed  to  attend  to  the  baby. 

4.  She  was  disappointed  in  not  obtaining  a  reward. 

5.  He  is 'conversant  with  the  most  intricate  affairs  of  state. 

6.  He  spoke  most  contemptibly  of  his  assistant. 

7.  James  sings  like  Charles  does. 

8.  Congratulate  to  themselves. 

9.  That  variety  of  faction  into  which  we  are  still  engaged . 

10.  Nevertheless,  it  is  open,  I  expect,  to  serious  question. 

11.  The  Irish  are  perpetually  using  "shall"  for  "will." 

12.  The  rains  rendered  the  roads  impracticable. 

13.  Perhaps  some  people  are  quite  indifferent  ivJiether  or  Jio  it  is 
said  that  they  sip  their  coffee  out  of  a  jar. 

14.  The   greatest   masters   of  critical    learning   differ  among  one 
another. 

15.  The  emblem  of  the  lily  is  purity. 

16.  Y{&  predicated  his  action  on  a  misconception  of  my  meaning. 

17.  Macaulay  speaks  of  an  observation  of  the  Sabbath. 

18.  I  thus  obtained  a  character  for  natural  powers  of  reasoning. 

19.  I  have  no  doubt  but  that  the  pistol  is  a  relic  of  the  buccaneers. 

20.  Hast  thou  walked  in  the  world  with  such  little  observance  as  to 
wonder  that  men  are  not  what  they  seem  ? 

21.  A  society  for  the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  animals  has  been  in- 
atigurated. 

22.  Triplet  disbarrassed  her  of  a  thick  mantle  and  a  hood  that  con- 
cealed her  features. 


152  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

23.  He  looked  luretchcdly. 

24.  She  feels  badly. 

25.  I  doubt  his  lady  could  demca7i  herself  so  low  as  to  accept  me. 

26.  He  is  resolved  ^  going  to  the  Persian  court. 

27.  He  has  a  good  record,  I  am  told,  and  preaches  io  acceptance. 

28.  I  have  a  couple  of  dollars. 

29.  He  accorded  me  the  privilege. 

30.  The  balance  of  the  night  was  spent  in  finding  a  hiding-place. 

31.  Herschel  disco7fcred  the  telescope. 

32.  Observe  me,  Sir  Anthony,  I  would  by  no  means  wish  a  daugh- 
ter of  mine  to  be  a  progetiy  of  learning. 

33.  They  stand  upon  security,  and  will  not  liberate  him  until  it  be 
obtained. 

34.  The  children  work  hard  to  gaiti  rewards. 

35.  In  their  perplexity,  they  knew  not  what  course  to  follow. 

36.  James  inserts  his  authority  without  due  reflection. 

37.  He  owjts  principles  that  are  opposed  to  such  a  line,  of  action. 

38.  H.  D.  Osgood  has  wo7i  the  honor  of  representing  his  country 
at  the  court  of  Austria. 

Precision. — Precision  (from  the  Latin  prcEcidar,  to  cut 
off,)  is  that  property  of  diction  which  requires  the  use  of 
such  words  as  cut  off  all  that  we  do  not  mean  to  express. 
If,  for  example,  we  wish  to  say,  "He  has  stifficicnt  money ," 
but  say  instead,  "  He  has  enough  money,"  we  express  more 
than  we  intend.  Sufficient  means  what  one  actually  needs ; 
enoiLgJi,  what  one  desires.  When  one  has  money  to  supply 
all  his  needs,  he  has  sufficient ;  he  has  enough  only  when 
his  desires  are  satisfied.  The  precise  writer  chooses  words 
that  express  what  he  means  to  say  without  any  addition  or 
diminution. 

Discourse  may  lack  precision  (i)  Through  the  use  of  equiv- 
ocal terms ;  (2)  Through  the  confounding  of  synonyms. 

Equivocal  ternns. — These  are  words  and  phrases  that 
admit  of  being  understood  in  a  sense  different  from  that  in 
which  the  writer  applies  them.     They  are  found  in  every 


STYLE.  153 

part  of  speech.  Thus,  "did"  is  used  equivocally  in  this 
sentence:  "He  admired  nothing  except  what  you  did." 
To  those  who  are  ignorant  of  the  facts,  this  might  mean, 
"He  admired  nothing  except  your  doings  or  actions,"  or, 
"  He  admired  nothing  except  what  you  admired." 

There  are  few  words  in  our  language  which  have  only 
one  meaning.  Some  are  used  in  many  different  senses,  and 
the  meaning  intended  by  the  WTiter  must  be  inferred  from 
the  connection.  There  is  usually  no  difficulty  in  this  when 
the  word  is  used  in  the  same  sense  throughout  a  sentence, 
and  in  sentences  near  one  another.  Obscurity  arises,  how- 
ever, if  the  same  word  has  two  different  meanings  in  the 
same  sentence. 

Synonymous  Words. — In  the  second  place,  precision 
is  violated  by  the  faulty  use  of  synonymous  words.  As,  by 
the  changes  of  language,  the  same  word  is  brought  to  des- 
ignate different  things,  so  different  words  are  brought  to 
designate  the  same  thing,  or  nearly  the  same.  No  two 
words  are  the  exact  equivalents  of  each  other,  though  it 
may  answer  practical  purposes  to  use  them  as  such.  "Syn- 
onym "  is  commonly  applied,  therefore,  to  words  not  iden- 
tical, but  similar,  in  meaning;  generically  so  alike  as  to  be 
liable  to  be  confounded,  yet  specifically  so  different  as  to 
require  to  be  distinguished.  Thus  "hasten "and  "hurry" 
both  imply  a  quick  movement,  but  "hurry"  always  adds 
the  idea  of  excitement  or  irregularity,  while  "hasten"  con- 
veys only  the  notion  of  rapid  movement. 

The  English  language,  more  than  any  other,  has  words 
that  are  truly  synonymous,  and  this  on  account  of  its  com- 
posite character.  In  many  cases  we  have  two  sets  of  de- 
rivatives, one  set  from  the  Latin,  the  other  set  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon,   which  are  nearly  parallel  in  meaning ;   as, 


154  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

SAXON.  LATIN. 

motherly  =  maternal 

brotherly  =  fraternal 

hide  =  conceal 

teach  =  instruct 

It  will  generally  be  found  that  the  Saxon  expression  is 
the  better  understood,  and  therefore  the  stronger.  Saxon 
Avords  belong  to  the  mother  element  of  the  English  tongue ; 
they  name  the  things  known  to  our  ancestors ;  they  denote 
the  qualities,  acts,  states,  and  relations  of  these  things. 
Thus  they  are  our  household  words,  and  are  better  under- 
stood by  all,  even  by  the  educated ;  for  this  reason,  it  is  a 
good  general  rule  to  prefer  Saxon  terms  to  Latin.  They 
will  not  always  serve  as  w^ell  as  w^ords  of  Latin  origin,  but 
in  most  cases  they  will  serve  much  better.  Prefer  them 
where  }'ou  would  express  yourself  with  great  simplicity, 
directness,  and  force. 

Accuracy  in  the  use  of  words  can  not  be  acquired  in  a 
few  easy  lessons.  But  get  into  the  habit  of  t/iiiikiiig  about 
tlic  7cords  you  employ,  and  this  habit  will  gradually  bring 
about  correctness  in  the  use  of  language. 

The  following  examples,  adapted  from  Smith's  Synonyms 
Discriminated,  will  illustrate  the  different  shades  of  meaning 
between  words  nearly  s}-nonymous: 

Allow  [Fr.  or  Lat.];  Admit  [Lat.]. — These  terms  are 
here  compared  only  in  regard  to  matters  of  speculation  and 
argument.  Allow  is  negative,  while  Admit  is  positive.  I 
admit  what  I  can  not  deny.  I  allow  what  in  fairness  ought 
to  be  granted.  Logical  necessity  compels  me  to  admit. 
Argumentatix'e  honesty  requires  that  I  should  allow.  Ad- 
mit denotes  what  is  due  to  the  case  ;  Allow,  what  is  <^\\<i  to 
him  who  argues,  as  a  claim. 


STYLE. 


155 


Allow — Permit  [Lat.]. — To  Pcnnit  is  used  in  a  passive, 
while  Allow  has  a  more  active,  sense.  If  I  allow  him,  I 
give  him  at  least  some  degree  of  sanction,  however  small ; 
if  I  permit,  I  only  do  not  prevent  him.  But  in  matters  not 
of  the  will  of  individuals  only,  but  of  formal  or  public  sanc- 
tion. Permit  is  a  stronger  term  than  Allow.  In  this  con- 
nection the  case  is  reversed.  If  the  law  permit  me  to  do 
something,  it  sanctions  my  doing  it.  Allow  supposes  the 
thing  allowed  to  be  good ;  Permit,  that  it  may  be  good  or 
bad. 

Animal  [Lat.];  Brute  [Lat.  bnitus,  irrational];  Beast 
[Lat.  bcstia].  —  Animal  comprehends  every  creature  en- 
dowed with  that  life  which  is  superior  to  the  merely  vege- 
table life  of  plants,  and  therefore  includes  man.  It  is  some- 
times, however,  made  to  express  distinctively  other  animals 
than  man.  In  that  case  we  have  to  suppose  a  further  distinc- 
tion drawn  between  the  rational  and  irrational  animal  life. 

Brute  and  Beast  stand  related  each  in  its  own  way  to 
man.  Bjiitc  is  the  animal  regarded  in  reference  to  the  ab- 
sence of  that  intelligence  which  man  possesses ;  Beast,  (ex- 
cept where  the  word  is  used  in  the  sense  of  cattle)  in  refer- 
ence to  that  savage  nature  of  which  man  is  or  ought  to  be 
devoid.  The  indolent,  senseless,  and  violent  brute;  the 
cruel,  savage,  vile,  or  filthy  beast.  Hence,  while  the  term 
animal  is  applicable  to  insects,  neither  brute  nor  beast  is  so, 
being  insusceptible  of  moral  comparison  with  man.  In  ap- 
plying the  terms  figuratively  to  the  character  and  disposi- 
tion of  men,  Animal  denotes  one  who  follows  the  instincts 
and  propensities  of  his  lower  nature  to  the  neglect  of  moral 
restraints  and  intellectual  sympathies ;  Beast,  one  who  grov- 
els in  sensuality ;  Brute,  one  whose  nature  seems  deadened 
to  finer  feeling-. 


156  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Ask  [A.  S.];  Request  [Lat.];  Beg  [O.  E.  or  A.  S.]; 
Beseech  [O.  E.];  Supplicate  [Lat.];  Entreat  [O.  Fr.]; 
Implore  [Lat.]. — To  Ask  is  to  seek  to  obtain  by  words. 
But  the  character  of  the  words  may  vary  from  the  humblest 
entreaty  to  a  demand.  Its  further  sense  of  obtaining  in- 
formation by  words  of  inquiry  is  not  here  considered.  It 
is  the  simplest  and  broadest  term  for  making  a  request.  It 
implies  no  particular  sort  of  relationship,  as  of  superiority 
or  inferiority  between  parties.  The  master  asks  the  servant, 
and  the  servant  asks  the  master  to  do  a  thing.  It  is  the  or- 
dinary form  for  expressing  ordinary  requirements. 

Request  is  a  more  polite  word  for  the  same  thing.  Never- 
theless, it  is  sometimes  used  with  an  implied  sense  of  au- 
thority, amounting  virtually  to  a  command.  Request  is  not 
a  strong  term,  carrying  with  it  neither  urgency  of  want  nor 
vehemency  of  words. 

To  Beg  is  more  earnest ;  and,  except  when  used  in  a 
kind  of  irony,  is  the  act  of  an  equal  or  an  inferior,  as  re- 
quest may  be  of  an  equal  or  a  superior.  To  beg  is  not  a 
term  of  marked  character.  We  may  beg  boldly  or  timidly, 
but  in  any  case  some  degree  of  dependence  is  involved. 
The  term  is  a  useful  one  when  the  speaker  wishes  to  com- 
bine impressiveness  of  entreaty  with  deference  or  respect. 
Neither  ask,  request,  nor  beg  is  so  strong  as  Beseech. 

To  Beseech  and  to  Entreat  are  much  the  same,  but  be- 
seech belongs  more  to  feeling;  entreat,  to  argument.  We 
entreat  an  equal  by  what  he  knows,  feels,  or  understands; 
we  beseech  a  superior  by  his  goodness  or  his  greatness. 
There  is  a  condescension  when  we  entreat  an  inferior,  as  a 
father  may  entreat  a  son  to  be  more  diligent  for  his  own 
.sake.  This  is  to  urge  on  grounds  of  affection  and  argu- 
ment combined. 

To  Supplicate  and  to  Implore  botii  imply  e.xtremc  distress 


STYLE. 


157 


and  earnestness ;  but  we  may  implore  equals,  we  supplicate 
only  superiors ;  for  supplication  denotes  abject  humility,  as 
in  a  slave,  or  an  offender,  supplicating  for  pardon.  We 
commonly  beseech  on  the  ground  of  personal  influence,  as 
in  the  phrase,  "I  beseech  you  for  my  sake."  In  imploring 
we  strive  to  move  the  feelings,  as  of  pity,  sympathy,  or  com- 
passion. 

Burial  [A.  S.];  Interment  [Fr.  Intcrrcnicnt — Lat.  in, 
and  terra,  the  earth].  Burial  is  simply  the  covering  of 
one  thing  over  with  others,  so  as  to  conceal  it  from  view; 
as,  to  bury  one's  face  in  one's  hands.  As  used  in  the 
above  connection,  the  burial  of  a  body  is  the  laying  of  it 
sufficiently  deep  in  the  earth  to  conceal  it  from  view.  We 
can  even  speak  of  a  burial  at  sea. 

So  characteristic  is  the  idea  of  concealment  in  the  term 
Biuy,  that  in  a  secondary  sense  it  is  employed  in  reference 
to  many  things  of  which  circumstances  combine  to  prevent 
the  exhibition.  A  man  fitted  to  adorn  society  or  to  be 
eminently  useful  to  it,  is  often  buried  in  some  remote  and 
obscure  locality,  beyond  which  his  name  is  not  heard. 

Interment  is  a  more  dignified  and  polite  word  than  burial, 
but  by  its  etymology  more  restricted  in  meaning,  and  de- 
noting any  formal  and  ceremonial  or  decent  placing  of  the 
body  under  ground.  We  might  say,  "Buried  like  a  dog," 
but  we  should  be  more  likely  to  say,  "Reverently  and  even 
sumptuously  interred. "  Interment  involves  the  idea  of  earth 
or  soil,  not  so  burial.  It  is  remarkable  how  the  word  Liter 
has  in  English  literature  been  confined  to  the  burial  of  the 
dead. 

Calumny  [Lat.]  ;  Defamation  [Lat.]  ;  Slander  [O.  Fr.]  ; 
Libel  [Lat.]. — Calumny  is  that  evil  speaking  which  is  based 
in  any  degree  on  what  the  speaker  knows  to  be  false,  whether 


158  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

it  be  a  crime  or  an  offence.  The  calumniator  is  both  a 
forger  and  a  propagator  of  evil  report  against  another,  and 
aims  at  doing  him  an  injury. 

For  calumny  will  sear 
Virtue  itself. — Sliakcspcarc. 

Defamation  is  essentially  public ;  it  is  the  spreading  far 
and  wide  of  what  is  injurious  to  the  reputation  of  persons. 

Slander  differs  from  defamation  in  being  not  only  public, 
but  also  secret  and  underhanded.  The  slanderer  is  not  so 
inventive  as  the  calumniator. 

Libel  is  a  written  slander  of  defamation.  Originally  a 
libel  was  a  document.  So  the  phrase  of  the  present  ver- 
sion of  the  Scriptures,  "A  writing  of  divorcement, "  stood 
in  Wycliffe's  version,  "A  libel  of  forsaking. "  It  is  now  any 
kind  of  published  defamation,  whether  in  print,  by  pictures, 
or  any  other  such  representation. 

Defend  [Lat.]  ;  Protect  [Lat.].  —  Defend  implies  an 
active  repelling  of  some  adverse  influence  or  power. 

Proiect  implies  a  passive  placing  of  something  between 
the  object  and  the  power.  A  fortress  is  defended  by  its 
guns,  and  protected  by  its  walls.  A  defence  is  successful 
or  unsuccessful.  A  protection  is  adequate  or  inadequate. 
In  some  cases  of  a  somewhat  metaphorical  character  we  use 
the  words  interchangeably.  So  we  say,  to  defend  or  pro- 
tect plants  from  frost:  but  in  the  one  case  we  look  upon 
the  power  we  have  to  resist ;  in  the  other,  upon  the  object 
we  have  to  guard. 

One  defends  what  is  attacked,  one  protects  what  is  weak. 
Defence,  therefore,  supposes  an  actual  and  pressing  danger, 
protection  only  that  feebleness  which  exposes  to  it.  Both 
defend  and  protect  may  be  applied  to  ourselves.  We  de- 
fend oursehes  by  meeting    torce  with  counter-force.      We 


STYLE.  159 

protect  ourselves  by  measures  of  precaution,  and  by  the  in- 
terposition of  what  may  counteract  adverse  influences. 

Diffident  [Lat.]  ;  Modest  [Lat.]  ;  Bashful  [O.  Fr.]. — 
Bashfiilncss  is  a  constitutional  feeling,  Alodcsty  a  virtue. 
Bashfulness  is  extreme  modesty.  It  is  an  instinctive,  almost 
animal  sensation,  though  involving  intelligence.  It  is  not 
unbecoming  in  young  persons  of  cither  sex,  especially  in 
the  presence  of  elders  or  superiors.  It  betrays  itself  in  a 
look  of  self-conscious  timidity,  and  in  grown-up  persons  is 
a  defect  amounting  to  a  mental  disease. 

Modesty  is  the  absence  of  all  tendency  to  overestimate 
one's  self,  while  Diffidence  is  the  positive  distrust  of  our- 
selves. Modesty  is  in  some  respects  very  unlike  diffidence, 
for  though  inclined  to  claim  less  than  his  due,  and  to  ac- 
cord more  than  their  due  to  others,  the  modest  man  is  not 
deterred  from  such  efforts  in  the  struggle  of  life  as  are  need- 
ful to  do  justice  to  himself;  while  diffidence,  if  it  be  a  habit 
of  the  disposition,  leads  to  positive  injustice  to  one's  self 
and  one's  own  powers. 

Difficulty  [Lat.];  Obstacle  [Lat.];  Obstruction  [Lat.]; 
Impediment  [Lat.]. — Difficulties  are  generally  complicated. 
Obstacles  and  Impediments  are  usually  simple.  Difficulties 
are  not  usually  surmounted  by  vigor,  energy,  resolution, 
hardihood,  and  the  like,  but  by  patience,  skill,  and  perse- 
verance. The  cutting  of  the  Gordian  Knot  was  an  escape 
from,  not  a  solution  of,  the  difficulty. 

In  marching  through  a  foreign  country,  the  general  would 
find  difficulties  in  the  incidental  things — the  badness  of  the 
roads,  the  nature  of  the  climate,  the  disposition  of  the  na- 
tives, the  scarcity  or  remoteness  of  provisions.  A  precip- 
itous valley  suddenly  yawning  under  the  feet  of  the  soldiers 
would  be  an  obstacle,  that  is,  a  barrier,  to  their  progress. 


l60  COMPOSITION  AXn   RIIKrORIC. 

A  river  might  be  an  obstacle,  a  heavy  cloak  an  imped- 
iment, to  the  traveler.  In  common  parlance  difficulties 
are  met  and  solved,  obstacles  surmounted,  impediments 
removed.  It  is  obvious  that  the  same  thing  may  be  some- 
times all  three,  according  to  the  point  of  view  from  which 
it  is  regarded.  The  eloquence  of  Demosthenes  was  to 
Philip  of  Macedon  a  difficulty  to  be  met  with  his  best  re- 
sources, an  obstacle  to  his  own  ambition,  and  an  imped- 
iment in  his  political  career.  Difficulties  perplex,  imped- 
iments embarrass,  obstacles  deter  or  retard.  Difficulties 
commonly  arise  out  of  the  inherent  nature  and  character 
of  the  matter  in  hand.  Obstacles  come  from  foreign 
causes.  Impediments  come  from  some  established  law  or 
superior  force. 

Obstruction  is  not  so  strong  as  obstacle,  which  latter  has 
also  a  more  abstract  sense.  We  surmount  obstacles,  and 
remove  obstructions.  An  obstacle  may  be  moral  and  in- 
ternal, as  indolence  is  an  obstacle  to  success.  Obstruc- 
tion is  external,  and  lies  in  the  path. 

Exceed  [Lat.] ;  Excel  [Lat.]. — Exceed \^  a  relative  term, 
implying  some  limit,  measure,  or  quantity  already  exist- 
ing, whether  of  bulk,  stature,  weight,  distance,  number, 
or  power — moral,  mental,  or  mechanical.  It  is  also  used 
intransitively  and  abstractedly;  as,  "The  temperate  man 
will  be  careful  not  to  exceed";  but  even  here  the  measure 
of  sufficiency  and  sobriety  is  understood. 

Excel  is  never  employed  but  in  an  honorable  sense.  It 
is  to  go  far  in  good  qualities,  or  laudable  actions  or  ac- 
quirements, or  specifically,  as  a  transitive  verb,  to  go  be- 
yond others  in  such  things. 

Expect  [Lat.];  Hope  [A.  S.].— We  Expect  when  we 
have  arrixed  at  the  conclusion   that  something:  future  will 


STYLE.  l6l 

really  happen  in  all  probability.  We  may  expect  what 
may  or  may  not  interest  us  personally.  We  may  expect, 
but  not  hope,  for  an  occurrence  which  will  cause  us  pain. 
We  Hope  when  we  look  with  pleasure  to  the  future.  In 
proportion  as  it  is  welcome,  we  hope ;  in  proportion  as  it 
is  certain,  we  expect.  Hope  is  a  faculty  of  the  human 
soul,  a  quality  which  diminishes  w^ith  the  increase  of  age. 
The  young,  who  live  in  the  future,  are  full  of  hope. 

Excite  [Lat.];  Incite  [Lat.]. — To  Excite  is  to  call  out 
into  greater  activity  what  before  existed  in  a  calm  or 
calmer  state,  or  to  arouse  to  an  active  state  faculties  or 
powers  which  before  were  dormant.  The  term  is  also 
used  of  purely  physical  action.  Wc  may  excite  heat  by 
friction. 

To  Incite  is  to  excite  to  a  specific  act  or  end  which  the 
inciter  has  in  view. 

Glance  [Sw.];  Glimpse  [A.  S.  or  Ger.]. —  Glance  ex- 
presses both  the  sudden  shooting  of  a  bright  object  or 
ray  of  light  before  the  eyes,  and  the  rapid  casting  of  the 
vision  itself  upon  an  object. 

Glimpse  differs  in  implying  the  seeing  momentarily  and 
imperfectly,  while  Glance  implies  that  the  object  is  seen 
momentarily  and  distinctly.  Glance  is  more  commonly 
voluntary ;  glimpse  involuntary.  We  take  glances ;  we 
catch  glimpses. 

Gratitude  [Fr.];  Thankfulness  [A.  S.]. —  Gratitude 
relates  to  the  inner  state  of,  Thankfulness  to  the  exhibi- 
tion of,  it  in  words.  We  commonly  use  Grateful  in  refer- 
ence to  human  agents;  TJiankfd,  to  Divine  Providence. 
We  may  look  grateful.  We  speak  our  thanks.  Thank- 
fulness is  mistrusted  if  it  be  not  expressed ;  but  gratitude 
may  be  too  deep  for  words.     Thankfulness  is  uneasy  till 

Rhet.— 14. 


I  62  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

it  has  acknowledged  a  kindness;  gratitude,  till  it  has  rec- 
ompensed it. 

Impostor  [Lat.];  Dfxeiver  [Fr.]. — An  hnpostor  is  a 
deceiver  of  the  public,  while  Deceiver  might  be  of  the 
public  or  of  a  private  individual.  Any  one  who  deceives 
by  word  or  deed  is  a  deceiver.  An  impostor  assumes  a 
false  appearance,  and  impersonates  what  is  not  truly  his. 
An  impostor  acts  for  his  own  benefit ;  a  deceiver  may  act 
simply  for  the  injury  of  another. 

Lonely  [Fr.];  Solitary  [Lat.]. — Lonely  conveys  the 
idea  of  the  melancholy  or  the  forsaken.  Solitary  denotes 
no  more  than  the  absence  of  life  or  society.  The  essence 
of  solitariness  is  separation,  not  the  feeling  consequent 
upon  it.  A  lonely  wanderer  is  not  only  solitary,  but  feels 
it  in  sadness.  Places  are  solitary  as  being  without  inhab- 
itants. They  are  lonely,  as  producing  in  persons  the  ef- 
fects of  isolation.  So  we  may  be  lonely,  though  not  sol- 
itary, in  a  crowd. 

Marine  [Lat.];  Maritime  [Lat.];  Naval  [Lat.]. — Marine 
means  belonging  to  the  sea  in  its  simplest  aspect  or  nat- 
ural state ;  as,  marine  productions  or  deposits. 

Maritime  means  belonging  to  the  sea  as  it  is  employed 
by  man,  or  in  relation  to  the  life  of  man ;  as  a  maritime 
people,  maritime  trade  or  occupations. 

Naval  means  belonging  to  ships.  We  speak  of  a  naval 
life,  a  naval  profession,  a  naval  armament. 

Mutual  [Lat.];  Reciprocal  [Lat.].  —  Mutual  implies 
nothing  as  to  time  or  order  of  action.  Reciprocal  involves 
an  idea  of  priority  and  succession.  A  mutual  thing  is 
simply  a  thing  which  exists  between  two  persons;  a  re- 
ciprocal thing  so  exists  as  to  the  result  of  a  giving  and 


STYLE.  163 

returning.  "The  attachment  was  mutual,"  would  mean 
simply  that  it  was  felt  on  both  sides ;  that  it  was  recipro- 
cal, would  mean  that  what  one  had  given  the  other  also 
had  returned. 

Noted  [Lat.];  Notorious  [Lat.]. — Noted  is,  reserved  for 
that  which  is  well  known,  favorably  or  eminently. 

Notorious  is  employed  to  express  what  is  publicly  known, 
and  universally  in  men's  mouths,  commonly,  though  not 
invariably,  with  an  unfavorable  meaning.  At  least,  no- 
torious is  never  used  of  what  is  known  purely  for  good. 
We  speak  indiscriminately  of  a  notorious  or  a  noted  fact, 
but  not  person ;  nor  are  virtue  and  excellence  ever  said  to 
be  notorious. 

Nightly  [A.  S.];  Nocturnal  [Lat.  noctem'].  —  NigJitly 
is  derived  from  the  English  word  night ;  Noctiirnal,  from 
the  Latin  noctem,  night ;  yet  they  are  somewhat  differ- 
ently employed.  The  former  is  a  term  of  more  familiar 
character  than  the  latter;  but  a  further  difference  is  no- 
ticeable, flowing,  however,  from  the  same  difference  of 
origin.  NigJitly  means  simply  at  the  time  of  night,  or 
every  night,  while  Nocturjial  means  connected  with  the 
nature  of  the  night.  A  nightly  visit.  The  nocturnal 
habits  of  some  birds,  insects,  and  quadrupeds. 

Occupancy  [Lat.];  Occupation  [Lat.]. — The  difference 
between  these  two  words  flows  from  the  different  forces 
of  the  verb  occupy,  to  take  possession  and  to  hold  pos- 
session. 

Occupancy  is  the  taking,  or  having  possession  in  relation 
to,  rights,  claims,  or  privileges ;  Occupation,  in  relation  to 
no  more  than  the  fact  of  possessing  and  holding.  We 
speak  of  the  occupancy  of  an  estate ;  and  the  occupation, 
not  occupancy,  of  a  country  by  an  army.      Occupancy  has 


164  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

a  passive  sense;    Occupation   has   both  an   active  and  a 
passive  sense. 

Polite  [Lat.];  Civil  [Lat.];  Polished  [Lat.]. — Polished 
may  be  appHed  to  that  which  exhibits  traces  of  finish  in 
training  or  preparation;  as,  "A  poHshed  man,"  "Pohshed 
manners,"  "A  pohshed  discourse."  Pohshed  is  opposed 
to  rough ;  it  is  an  attribute  of  external  things. 

Civil.  The  civil  man  is  observant  of  the  slight  outward 
courtesies  of  intercourse  between  man  and  man.  True 
ci\ility  is  seen  in  the  demeanor  of  those  who  respect  oth- 
ers because  they  respect  themselves,  and  is  as  far  removed 
from  condescension  on  the  one  side  as  from  servility  on 
the  other. 

Polite.  The  polite  man  is  polished  in  such  courtesies, 
and  is  in  higher  training.  The  courtier  is  polite,  but  even 
the  rustic  may  be  civil.  The  civil  man  is  not  necessarily 
polite.  Civility  is  confined  to  no  class  or  grade  of  so- 
ciety; Politeness  is  between  equals,  and  that  in  the  society 
of  the  better  born  and  educated. 

People  [O.  E.  or  Lat.  popiihis\\  Persons  [Lat.].  —  In 
collociuial  language,  these  terms  are  synonymous;  as, 
''V^?iX\y  persons  say  so";  "Many  people  do  it."  The  dif- 
ference seems  to  be  that  in  the  term  Persons,  the  individ- 
uals are  more  thought  of,  and  with  more  deference;  while 
in  the  term  People,  the  individuals  are  merged  in  the  ag- 
gregate. "At  the  dinner  yesterday  there  were  five  peo- 
ple," would  be,  if  not  inelegant,  expressive  of  contempt- 
uousness.  "People  of  that  sort";  "Persons  of  distinc- 
tion"; "People  say";  "It  is  said  by  many  respectable 
persons."  It  may  be  observed  that  Persons  in  this  gen- 
eral sense  docs  not  appear  in  the  objective  case.  Again, 
"This  often  pleases  people"  (;/^V  persons). 


STYLE. 


165 


Peruse — Read  [A.  S.]. — To  Read  is  to  interpret  char- 
acters into  their  words  whether  mentally  only  or  audibly 
also ;  and  more  generally,  to  gather  the  meaning  by  obser- 
vation of  anything  which  expresses  itself  by  outward  effects 
or  indications ;  as,  to  read  character  in  a  face. 

To  Peruse,  the  etymology  of  which  is  quite  uncertain, 
meant  formerly  to  observe  closely  and  in  detail.  This 
might  be  the  matter  of  some  book  or  not.  Now  to  peruse 
is  to  read  thoughtfully.  One  peruses  at  length  a  work  in 
which  one  is  interested ;  one  reads,  it  may  be,  a  name  upon 
a  sign-post. 

Persuade  [Lat.]  ;  Convince  [Lat.]. — Persuade  has  much 
in  common  with  Convince ;  but  conviction  is  the  result  of 
the  understanding,  persuasion  of  the  will.  Conviction  is  a 
necessity  of  the  mind  ;  persuasion,  an  acquiescence  of  the 
inclination.  Conviction,  being  mental,  is  less  active ;  per- 
suasion, being  moral,  is  the  more  active  outwardly.  We 
are  convinced  of  truths  and  facts.  We  are  persuaded  to 
act  and  to  behave.  We  speak  of  a  persuasive  manner, 
convincing  proofs. 

Purpose  [O.  Fr.];  Propose  [Lat.]. — No  two  terms  are 
more  commonly  confounded  than  Purpose  and  Propose ;  but 
the  former  denotes  a  settled,  the  latter  a  contingent,  state 
of  the  mind.  I  propose  to  do  something,  if  I  have  not  yet 
made  up  my  mind.  I  purpose  when  I  have  made  it  up. 
Yet  the  words  Purpose  and  Propose  might  often  be  used  in- 
differently, provided  it  be  remembered  that  they  express 
different  aspects  of  the  same  thing.  I  purpose  to  do  a 
thing  when  I  have  formed  a  practical  intention  to  do  it.  I 
propose  to  do  it  when  I  recognize  it  as  a  design  which  I 
shall  carry  out,  provided  nothing  should  arise  to  hinder  or 
deter  me. 


l66  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

■Resolution  [Lat.];  Determination  [Lat.];  Decision 
[Lat.]. — A  choice  between  action  and  inaction  is  Rcsohi- 
tio)i.  A  choice  between  one  motive  and  another  is  Dctcrnii- 
uation.  An  irrevocable  choice  is  Decision.  Decision  com- 
monly implies  a  choice  among  several  courses  of  action. 
We  determine  what  to  do  and  resolve  to  carry  out  our 
determination.  Determination  is  a  less  energetic  form  of 
decision.  Resolution  is  a  promise  made  to  one's  self  to 
undertake  a  thing.  It  implies  a  finer  moral  choice.  A 
stubborn  man  may  be  determined,  a  firm  man  is  resolved, 
what  to  do.  Both  determination  and  decision  are  at  an 
end  when  the  action  has  been  entered  upon,  but  resolution 
may  be  carried  on  into  the  action  itself 

Decision  is  an  act  of  the  mind,  and  supposes  examination. 
Resolution  is  an  act  of  the  will,  and  supposes  deliberation. 
Our  decisions  should  be  just,  that  we  may  not  repent  them. 
Our  resolutions  should  be  firm,  that  we  may  not  break 
them. 

In  matters  of  science,  we  speak  of  the  decision  of  a  ques- 
tion, and  of  the  resolution  of  a  doubt  or  difficulty. 

Watch  [A.  S.];  Observe  [Lat.]. —  [rrrA/z/V/if  is  a  strict, 
constant,  close,  and  eager  observation.  We  Observe  with 
coolness  the  present  state  of  a  case.  We  watch  for  what 
is  to  take  place  hereafter.  Where  we  are  interested,  we 
observe.     Where  we  are  suspicious,  we  watch. 

Weight  [A.  S.];  Heaviness  [A.  S.]. —  Hr/^/// is  wholly 
indefinite,  and  is  opposed  to  that  which  is  imponderable. 
The  lightest  substances  have  some  amount  of  we-ight. 
Weight,  however,  is  used  scientifically,  while  Heaviuess  is 
concrete,  that  is,  expresses  the  sensation  of  weight.  In  their 
secondary  senses,  Heaviness  is  the  weight  of  care  or  trouble, 
JVeightiytess,   the    urgency  of  fact    or   reasoning.      Heavy 


STYLE.  167 

rather  than  weighty  is  the  term  employed  to  express  the 
force  which  results  from  the  weight  of  a  body  in  motion. 
Thus  we  speak  of  a  heavy,  not  a  weighty,  blow.  The 
felled  tree  falls  not  weightily,  but  heavily,  to  the  ground. 

Whole  [A.  S.];  Entire  [O.  Fr.  or  Lat.];  Complete 
[Lat.]. —  Who'e  and  Entire  3xq  very  nicely  distinguished. 
In  most  cases  the  words  are  simply  interchangeable.  The 
entire  house  and  the  whole  house  are  the  same  thing.  But 
Whole  relates  to  what  is  made  up  of  parts,  and  a  whole 
thing  is  a  thing  in  which  no  part  is  wanting.  Entire  does 
not  relate  to  any  idea  of  parts,  but  simply  to  perfect  and 
undiminished  unity.  So  that  in  cases  in  which  the  idea 
is  not  resolvable  into  parts.  Entire  is  used  where  Whole 
could  not  be.  So  we  say,  "A  whole  orange,"  "A  whole 
number,"  "The  whole  quantity. "  But,  " His  character  was 
marked  by  an  entire  absence  of  selfishness, "  "entire  igno- 
rance," "  entire  confidence,"  "entire  control,"  and  the  like. 

Complete  denotes  the  possession  of  all  that  is  needful  to 
constitute  a  thing,  or  to  fulfill  a  purpose  or  a  definition. 
A  thing  is  entire  which  is  not  broken,  or  mutilated,  or  di- 
vided ;  it  is  complete  when  it  wants  nothing.  Complete 
relates  to  what  implies  a  thing  in  its  perfection. 

Wing  [Dan.  Sw.];  Pinion  [Fr.]. — The  Pinion  is  a  feath- 
ered wing ;  while  Wing  is  more  generally  a  lateral  append- 
age of  comparatively  light  material,  moved  with  a  vibratory 
motion,  and  supporting  the  flying  body  by  its  pressure  upon 
the  atmosphere.  Hence,  insects,  for  instance,  have  wings, 
but  not  pinions. 

Sorry  [A.  S.]  ;  Grieved  [Lat.]  ;  Hurt  [O.  Fr.]. — Sojry 
and  Grieved  differ  from  the  nouns  So?roiv  and  Grief  in 
being  used  in  a  lighter  sense  and  of  more  ordinary  matters. 


I  68  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

We  are  commonly  sorry  for  what  is  on  our  own  account, 
and  grieved  on  account  of  another.  To  be  grieved  is  more 
than  to  be  sorry.  ' '  I  am  sorry  that  I  was  not  at  home 
when  you  called";  "I  was  much  grieved  to  hear  the  loss 
he  had  sustained." 

/////'/  is  used  of  wounded  feelings,  and  denotes  the  sense 
of  having  been  treated  unfairly,  inconsiderately,  or  without 
due  respect. 

We  are  sorry  for  circumstances.  We  are  grieved  for  acts 
and  conduct.      We  are  hurt  by  treatment  or  behavior. 

Sorrow  ;  Grief.  — Cr/^y  and  Sorrozu  are  very  nearly  alike, 
but  Grief  is  the  more  active  and  demonstrative  of  the  two. 
It  expresses  a  poignant  state  of  mental  trouble,  while  Sor- 
row is  more  still  and  reflexive,  and  is  more  commonly  tinged 
with  regret.  Grief  contemplates  things  as  they  might  have 
been,  and  deplores  the  fact  of  their  occurrence.  Being 
more  active  than  Sorrow,  it  is  often  found  mingled  with 
compassion  for  others,  and  with  remorse  on  our  own  account. 
Grief  is  caused  by  bitter  calamities  and  misfortunes  which 
come  to  us  from  outside.  Sorrow  may  be  the  consequence 
of  our  own  acts.  Sorrow  in  the  last  degree  is  profound; 
Grief  is  violent.      Sorrow  mourns;   Grief  cries  aloud. 

Tedious  [Lat.];  Irksome  [O.  E.].  —  Tedious  denotes  the 
weariness  caused  by  time.  The  nature  of  the  thing  to  be 
done  makes  it  irksome.  The  time  taken  up  in  doing  a  thing 
makes  it  tedious.  Hence,  Tedious  denotes  what  is  felt  after 
a  work  is  begun  or  a  process  commenced ;  while  Irksome 
may  denote  the  feeling  which  prevents  one  from  undertak- 
ing at  all. 

Timely  [vl.S.] ;  Sea.sonap.le  [Fr.];  Opportune  [Lat.]. — 
Timely  means  in    good   time;    Seasonable,    in  right  time. 


STYLE. 


169 


Timely  aid  is  that  which  comes  before  it  is  too  late ;  Sea- 
sonable aid,  that  which  meets  the  nature  of  the  occasion. 

The  difference  is  slight  between  these  and  Opportune, 
which  seems  to  express  more  the  occurrence  of  that  which, 
by  its  timeliness,  aids  some  particular  project  or  specific 
course  of  things.  Like  Timely  and  unlike  Seasonable,  it 
qualifies  a  case  rather  than  a  class  of  cases.  Things  are 
opportune  for  the  occasion,  and  not  as  a  rule.  The  shower 
which  falls  seasonably  and  in  timely  preservation  of  a  crop 
may  be  inopportune  as  regards  a  party  of  pleasure. 

EXERCISE  XLIII. 


Direction.  —  Give  the  meaning  which  the  synonyms  grouped  below  have 
in  common;  give  the  meaning  which  belongs  to  each  separately;  and  write  sen- 
tences, using  each  word  correctly  : 


Absolve — exonerate — acquit. 

Adversary — opponent. 

Affirm — aver — protest. 

Alarm — terror. 

Appreciate  —  estimate  — es- 
teem. 

Assault — attack — assail. 

Kill — murder — assassinate. 

Battle — combat — engagement. 

Intricate  —  complex  —  compli- 
cated. 

Calculate— compute. 

Care — anxiety. 

Adorn — decorate-^embellish. 

Gentle — meek — mild — tame. 

Ingenuous — fair — open — 
frank. 

Emotion — feeling. 

Ferocious  —  fierce  —  savage  — 
barbarous. 

Rhet.-i5. 


17.  Firmness — constancy. 

18.  Follow — succeed. 

19.  Formal — ceremonious. 

20.  Friendly — amicable. 

21.  In — into. 

22.  Acquaintance — intimacy — fa- 

miliarity. 

23.  Insolence — insult. 

24.  Journey  —  tour  —  excursion  — 

pilgrimage. 

25.  Amend — rectify. 

26.  Axiom — maxim — adage. 

27.  Mean — base — vile. 

28.  Manifest  —  evident  —  plain  — 

clear. 

29.  Mature — ripe. 

30.  Motive  —  incentive  —  induce- 

ment. 

31.  Motherly — maternal. 
^2.  Mute — silent — dumb. 


I70  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


33.  Novel — new. 

34.  Abundance — plenty. 

35.  Pleasing  —  pleasant — agree- 

able. 

36.  Pillage — plunder. 

37.  Poverty — indigence — pauper- 

ism. 


38.  Poison — venom. 

39.  Rest — repose. 

40.  Resign — relinquish. 

41.  Sensible — intelligent. 

42.  Gain — win. 

43.  Slight — neglect. 

44.  Tall — high — lofty. 


EXERCISE  XI.IV. 

DlRSCl'ION.  —  Supply  precise  words  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Hope — Expect.     («-)  Such  was  the  violence  of  the  storm  that 
none  of  the  passengers the  vessel  could  outlive  the  gale. 

{b)  The  father  had that  his  son  would  be  eminent. 

2.  Lonely — Solitary,     {a)   It  appeared  to  the  misled  and  

traveler. 

(d)  Hie  home  unto  my  chamber,  where  thou  shalt  find  me  sad  and 


3.  AsA^ — Be^ — Request,     (a)  What  shall  you of  me  that  I  '11 

deny  ? 

(J))  In other  inferior  things  it  may  become  us  to  be  reserved 

and  modest. 

((t)  him  to  accept  the  same  as  a  testimony  of  their  tender^ 

ness  towards  him. 

4.  Admit — Allow,     {a)  The   ruined  spendthrift  claimed    kindred 
there,  and  had  his  claim . 

{U)  Even  a  real  miracle  can  not  be as  such  by  those  who 

are  not  assured  that  the  event  is  contradictory  to  the  course  of  nature. 

5.  Excite — Incite,     {(i)  Can  the  sons  of  Greece compassion 

in  Achilles'  mind  ? 

(<^)   The   concurrence    of   many   circumstances,    resembling   those 

which  had  been  so  favorable  to  the  late  monarch, him  to  a 

similar  attempt. 

6.  Poison — Venom,     (a)  As  souls,  they  say,  by  our  first  touch  take 
in  the of  original  sin. 

(<5)  The  God  of  truth  defend  you  and  all  others  that  maintain  his 

truth  from  the of  liars. 

{c)  The of  asps  is  under  their  tongues. 


STYLE.  171 

7.  Modern — Recent,     {a)  Yet  was  much  taxed,  by  that  age  precise, 
for  faults  which times  not  strange  have  thought. 

{F)  Amphitryon, from  the  nether  sphere. 

8.  Curious — Prying — Inquisitive,     (a)    Bacon   says,   some  have 

been  so as  to  remark  the  times  and  seasons,  when  the  stroke 

of  an  envious  eye  is  most  effectually  pernicious. 

(d)  Man  is  read  in  his  face,  God  in  his  creatures,  but  not  as  the 
philosopher,  the  creature  of  his  glory,  reads  him,  but  as  the  divine, 

the  servant  of  humility ;  yet  he  must  take  care  not  to  be  too . 

(c)   So  close  in  poplar  shades,  her  children  gone, 
The  mother  nightingale  laments  alone. 
Whose  nest  some churl  has  found. 

9.  Tedious  —  Irksome,     (a)  The  length   of  nine   revolving 

years. 

(d)  It  was  perhaps  less to  live  the  life  of  a  hermit  in  a  sol- 
itary den  than  to  submit  to  the  humors  of  a  bigot. 

10.  Defend — Protect,     {a)  God the  right. 

{h)  How  poor  a  thing  is  man,  whom  death  itself  can  not 

from  injuries. 

11.  Glance — Glimpse,     {a)  The  poet's  eye,  in  a  fine  frenzy  rolling, 
doth from  heaven  to  earth,  from  earth  to  heaven. 

{b)  In  His  face  the of  His  Father's  glory  shine. 

12.  Persuade — Convince,     {a)   He  that  a  man  to  rob   a 

house  is  guilty  of  the  sin  he him  to. 

{b)  Wise  men  desire  to  discover  such  evident  marks  of  superior 

wisdom,  power,  and  goodness  in  the  frame  of  it,  as  may them 

that  it  is  truly  divine. 

13.  Timely — Seasonable — Opportune,     (a)  Mercy  is  in  the 

time  of  affliction. 

(d)  The  English,  coming in  to  their  succor,  beat  them  back 

into  the  city. 

(c)  The  most place  shall  never  melt  mine  honor  into  lust. 

14.  Sorrow — Grief. 

(d)  is  humble  and  dissolves  in  tears ; 

Make  not  your  Hecuba  with  fury  rage. 
And  show  a  ranting upon  the  stage. 

15.  Impostor — Deceiver,     (a)  If  these  things  prove  true,  let  me  be 

registered  not  only  for  a  most  notorious ,  but  such  an  hypocrite 

as  never  trod  upon  the  earth  before. 


172  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

(d)  Our  Savior  wrought  his  miracles  frequently,  and  for  a  lonjj 
time  together;  a  time  sufficient  to  have  detected  any in. 

16.  Propose — Purpose,  {a)  The  ship  a  helpless  hull  is  left;  she 
quits  her way. 

{U)  There  are  but  two  plans  on  which  any  man  can to  con- 
duct himself  through  the  dangers  and  distresses  of  human  life. 

1 7 .  Mutual —  Reciprocal. 

{a)  But  as  He  framed  a  whole,  the  whole  to  bless. 
On wants  built happiness. 

(Ji)  Life  can  not  subsist  in  society  but  by concessions. 

18.  Pillage — Plunder,     {a)  I  took  away  from  our  men  the 

with  which  they  were  loaded,  and  gave  it  to  the  owners. 

(d)  For  the of  malignants,  I  answer  that  I  think  the  parlia- 
ment never  yet  approved  the ,  or,  in  plain  English,  robbing  of 

any  man  by  any  of  their  forces. 

19.  Resolution — Determination — Decisioyi.     {ti)  Be  it  with , 

then,  to  fight. 

{b)  The  will  is  said  to  be  when,  in  consequence  of  some 

action  or  influence,  its  choice  is  fixed  upon  a  particular  object. 

if)  The of  dying  to  end  our  miseries  does  not  show  such  a 

degree  of  magnanimity,  as  a to  bear  them. 

20.  Gratitude  —  Thankfulness,  {a) is  the  lively  and  power- 
ful reaction  of  a  well-disposed  mind  upon  whom  benevolence  has 
conferred  something  important. 

{b)  Give  us  that  due  sense  of  all  Thy  rhercies,  that  our  hearts  may 
be  unfeignedly . 

2 1 .  Difficulty  —  Obstacle  —  Impediment  —  Obstruction.       {a)    They 

were  all  night  removing  the that  had  been  placed  across  the 

road. 

{b)  Was  ever  any overcome  by  a  sudden  cast  of  thought  ? 

{c)  The  want  of  a  life  conformable  to  the  religion  which  we  profess, 
hath  been  an to  the  progress  of  Christianity. 

{d)  Because  an by  nature  earthly  and  foul  doth  not  receive 

the  pure  clearness  of  light  — 

22.  Exceed — Excel,     {a)  Man's  boundless  avarice ,  and  on 

his  neighbors  round  about  him  feeds. 

{b)  The  Power  that  shuts  within  its  seed  the  future  flower,  bids 
these  in  elegance  of  form . 

23.  Defamation  —  Calumny — Slander— Libel,     (a)   Their   aim   is 


STYLE.  173 

only  men's ,  not  their  reformation,  since  they  proclaim  men's 

vices  unto  others,  not  lay  them  open  to  themselves. 

(/;)  Whether  we  speak  evil  of  a  man  to  his  face  or  behind  his 
back ;  the  former  way  indeed  seems  to  be  the  most  generous,  but  yet 
is  a  great  fault,  and  that  which  we  call  reviling.  The  latter  is  more 
mean  and  base,  and  that  which  we  call . 

(c)  "The  way  to  silence ,"  says  Bias,  "is  to  be  always  exer- 
cised in  such  things  as  are  praiseworthy." 

{d)  We  have  in  a ;  (i)  the  writing;  (2)  the  communication; 

(3)  the  application  to  persons  and  facts ;  (4)  the  intent  and  tendency ; 
(5)  the  matter — diminution  of  fame. 

24.  Bashful — Modest — Diffident,     {a)  A man  is  so  only  in 

the  presence  of  others. 

{b)  is  a  kind  of  shame  or  bashfulness  proceeding  from  the 

sense  a  man  has  of  his  own  defects,  compared  with  the  perfections  of 
him  whom  he  comes  before. 

(r)  and  presumption  both  arise  from  the  want  of  knowing, 

or  rather  endeavoring  to  know,  ourselves. 

25.  Scheme — Plan — Design,  (a)  The  vigor  of  a  boundless  imag- 
ination told  him  how  a might  be  disposed  that  would  embel- 
lish Nature  and  restore  Art  to  its  proper  office. 

[^b)  The  machine  which  we  are  inspecting  demonstrates  by  its  con- 
struction, contrivance,  and . 

{c)  The  idea  of  the  possibility  of  multiplying  paper  money  to 
almost   any  extent  was   the  real  foundation   of  what   is  called  the 

Mississippi ,  the  most  extravagant  project,  both  of  banking  and 

stock-jobbing,  that  perhaps  the  world  ever  saw. 

26.  Linger — Lag — Saunter — Loiter,  {a)  We  must  proceed  speed- 
ily, and  persist  constantly,  nowhere  staying  or . 

{p)  Yet  not  content,  more  to  increase  his  shame,  when  so  she 
,  as  she  needs  mote  so,  he  with  his  spear  would  thump  her 


forward. 

(r)  On  yonder  cliffs,  a  grisly  band, 

I  see  them  sit ;  they yet ; 

Avengers  of  their  native  land. 

{d')  Upon  the  first  suspicion  a  father  has  that  his  son  is  of  a 

temper,  he  must  carefully  observe  him  whether  he  be  listless  and  in- 
different in  all  his  acdons,  or  whether  in  some  things  he  be  slow  and 
sluggish,  but  in  others  vigorous  and  eager. 


1/4  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Simplicity. — Simplicity  has  reference  to  the  choice  of 
simple  words  and  their  unaffected  presentation.  If  prop- 
erly and  skillfully  used,  words  readily  and  generally  intel- 
ligible produce  their  full  effect. 

Short  words  require  the  least  attention,  and  are  corre- 
spondingly strong.  Hence  the  strength  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  element,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  comprises  the 
vocabulary  of  common  life, — the  language  of  the  emo- 
tions, of  the  fireside,  street,  market,  and  farm.  This  ele- 
ment predominates  in  the  books  most  widely  circulated ; 
as,  the  Bible,  Pilgrim's  Progjvss,  Robinson  Crusoe,  and 
Gulliver  s  Travels ;  and  it  is  to  the  home-going  Saxon  of 
these  books  that  their  popular  impressiveness  and  general 
intelligibility  may  be  ascribed.  Every  word  in  the  follow- 
ing passage  from  St.  John  is  of  Saxon  origin: 

"  In  the  beginning  was  the  Word,  and  the  Word  was  with  God,  and 
the  Word  was  God.  The  same  was  in  the  beginning  with  God.  All 
things  were  made  by  him;  and  without  him  was  not  anything  made 
that  was  made.     In  him  was  life;  and  the  life  was  the  light  of  men." 

Bain  says:  "Our  translation  of  the  Bible  is  usually  re- 
ferred to  as  showing  most  remarkably  the  force  of  the 
Saxon  element  in  our  language,  whereby  it  is  intelligible, 
familiar,  and  home -going.  These  qualities  it  certainly 
possesses  in  a  very  high  degree ;  but  as  the  translators 
seem  to  have  been  guided  rather  by  an  unconscious  tact, 
which  must  sometimes  have  failed  them,  than  by  a  delib- 
erate preference  of  Saxon  words,  the  statement  must  be 
received  with  some  qualifications."  In  passages  marked 
by  great  simplicity,  the  Saxon  element  is  largely  used. 
Of  this  the  Gospels  furnish  numerous  examples.  Again, 
when  emotional  effect  is  chiefly  aimed  at,  the  translators 
often  give  the  Saxon  in  great  purity.  Many  examples  of 
melody  and   pathos  might  be  produced  from  the  Psalms; 


STYLE.  175 

none  more  conspicuous,  however,  than  the  twenty-third, 
the  whole  of  which  contains  only  ten  classical  words. 

"While  the  great  majority  of  words  in  the  English 
Bible  are  native,  there  is  necessarily,  also,  a  considerable 
mixture  of  the  classical  element.  One  reason  of  this  is 
that  the  terms  in  use  for  designating  ideas  peculiar  to  Ju- 
daism or  Christianity  had  mostly  been  derived  from  the 
Latin.  The  following  are  examples  of  such  words ;  some 
of  them  were  originally  Greek,  though  received  by  us 
through  the  Latin:  apostle,  evangelist,  bishop,  baptism, 
grace,  salvation,  repent,  justify,  sanctify,  elect,  saint,  an- 
gel, eternal,  immortal,  miracle,  creation,  sacrifice.  These 
have  become  household  words;  we  are  as  much  at  home 
with  them  as  we  should  have  been  with  native  terms. 
Some  of  them  are  as  easy  and  homely  as  the  commonest 
of  the  words  inherited  from  our  simple-minded  Teutonic 
forefathers;  while  some  of  our  Saxon  words,  by  being 
sparingly  used,  or  by  being  connected  with  difficult  no- 
tions (as  laws  and  government),  may  not  be  readily  fol- 
lowed. The  classical  'flower,'  'gain,'  'branch,'  'gentle,' 
are  quite  as  familiar  as  the  Saxon  'bloom,'  'win,'  'bough,' 
and  'riding';  while  'wapentake,'  'wardmote,'  'gavelkind,' 
though  native,  are  not  universally  understood." — Bain. 

We  may,  therefore,  greatly  simplify  a  learned  style, 
without  resolving  it  into  the  pure  Saxon.  To  simplify  a 
difficult  passage  by  the  substitution  of  Saxon,  or,  failing 
that,  of  easy  classical,  terms,  will  form  one  of  the  best  ex- 
ercises in  'applying  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  the  sources 
of  the  English. 

Writers  who  seek  the  utmost  intelligibiUty,  will  avoid 
foreign  words,  not  because  they  are  foreign,  but  because 
they  are  not  current.  "I  observe,"  says  Emerson,  "that, 
all  distinguished  poetry  is  written  in  the  oldest  and  sim- 


176  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

plest  English  words.  There  is  a  point,  above  coarseness 
and  below  refinement,  where  propriety  abides."  It  is 
well,  however,  to  remember  that  classical  words  are  more 
dignified  in  their  associations.  The  Saxon  part  of  the 
vocabulary,  while  favorable  to  feeling  and  pathos,  con- 
tains also  the  coarse  and  vulgar  words  of  the  language. 
Latin  and  Greek  words  not  only  are  freer  from  coarse- 
ness, but  also  are  associated  with  dignity  or  elevation. 
For  Saxon  "sweat,"  we  have  "perspiration";  and  for 
many  coarse,  strong  Saxon  words — words  found  only  in 
the  mouths  of  the  uneducated  and  unrefined,  our  language 
affords  equivalents  derived  from  the  more  refined  Latin. 
We  see,  then,  the  necessity  as  well  as  the  advantage  of 
using  simple  English  words;  and  these  include  not  only 
natives,  but  many  foreign  derivatives,  which  are  equally 
brief  and  clear. 

EXERCISE  XLV. 

Direction.  —  Express  the  following  sentences  in  simple,  natural  English : 

1.  I  was  confronted  by  a  diminutive  maiden,  whose  habiliments 
were  indicative  of  penury. 

2.  The  poor  Indian  lay  in  his  last  extremity. 

3.  There  is  a  potentiality  of  growing  rich  beyond  the  dreams  of 
avarice. 

4.  Your  sister  was  e\idently  laboring  in^der  some  hallucination. 

5.  His  spirit  quitted  its  earthly  habitation. 

6.  An  individual  was  precipitated* 

7.  Who  urges  into  motion  corpulent  animals  of  the  bovine  species 
should  himself  be  of  no  mean  dimensions. 

8.  The  ruminants  repose  beneath  the  umbrageous  trees. 

9.  These  youthful  personages  were  engaged  in   tumultuary  rec- 
reations. 

10.  The  conflagration  reached  out  as  if  to  inclose  the  wide  city  4u 
its  fierv  embrace. 


STYLE.  177 

II.  John  and  his  canine  companion  unceremoniously  disturbed  the 
felicitous  slumbers  of  the  old  cat  and  her  young  family. 

13.  Many  of  our  seemingly  insignificant  and  barbarous  conso' 
nental  monosyllables  are  expressive  of  the  mi'^htiest  thoughts. 

13.  That  affluence  and  power,  advantages  extrinsic  and  adventi* 
tious,  should  very  often  flatter  the  mind  with  expectations  of  felicity 
which  they  can  not  give,  raises  no  astonishment. 

14.  By  my  side  was  a  square-built,  fresh-colored  personage. 

15.  Even  if  this  conciliatory  proceeding  were  a  proper  device  — . 

16.  I  bore  the  diminution  of  my  riches  without  any  outrages  of 
sorrow  or  pusillanimity  of  dejection, 

17.  Their  hearts  are  like  that  of  the  principle  of  evil  himself — in- 
corporeal, pure,  unmixed,  dephlegmated,  defecated  evil. 

18.  They  agreed  to  homologate  the  choice  that  had  been  made. 

19.  Out  of  one  of  the  beds  on  which  we  were  to  repose,  started  up, 
at  our  entrance,  a  man  black  as  a  Cyclops  from  the  forge. 

20.  I  would  inculcate  the  importance  of  a  careful  study  of  genuine 
English,  and  a  conscientious  scrupulosity  in  its  accurate  use. 

21.1  was  surprised,  after  the  civilities  of  my  first  reception,  to  find, 
instead  of  the  leisure  and  tranquillity  which  a  rural  life  always  prom- 
ises, and,  if  well-conducted,  might  always  afford,  a  confused  wilder- 
ness of  care,  and  a  tumultuous  hurry  of  diligence,  by  which  every 
face  was  clouded  and  every  motion  agitated. 

22.  Professions  lavishly  effused  and  parsimoniously  verified  are 
alike  inconsistent  with  the  precepts  of  innate  rectitude,  and  the  prac- 
tice of  internal  policy. 

EXERCISE  XLVI. 

Direction. — Write  sentences  containing  shorter  or  more  familiar  expres- 
sions for  the  following : 

Aggravate,  individual,  residence,  circumspect,  simultaneously,  tort- 
uous, termination,  occult,  extinguish,  transform,  accomplish,  instruct, 
preclude,  articulate,  felicity,  exacerbated,  antagonist,  cognizance,  pro- 
genitor, audacious,  inaugurate,  approximate,  minatory,  commence, 
indoctrinate,  penetrate,  auxiliaries,  invahdate,  atmosphere,  idiosyn- 
crasies, ethereal,  pabulum,  anomaly,  isothermal,  elimination,  interpo- 
late, lEsthetic,  disparage,  obliterate,  circumlocution,  supersede. 


178  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 


EXERCISE  XLVII. 

MISCELLANEOUS   EXAMPLES   ON   DICTION. 

Direction.  —  Tell  what  quality  of  diction — purity,  propriety,  precision,  or 
simplicity — is  violated  here.     Correct  all  errors  in  your  recast  of  the  sentences: 

1.  He  is  worthy  of  praise  for  his  observation  of  fdial  duty. 

2.  The  sellers  of  the  newest  patterns  at  present  give  extreme  good 
bargains. 

3.  But  what  will  fame  be  to  an  ephemera  who  no  longer  exists? 

4.  The  protest  laid  quietly  on  the  table. 

5.  The  child  died  from  the  sequelcC  of  the  scarlet  fever. 

6.  The  only  danger  that  attends  the  multiplicity  of  publications  is 
that  some  of  them  may  be  calculated  to  injure  rather  than  benefit 
society. 

7.  I  guess  you  may  speak  respectably  to  your  superiors. 

8.  He  was  led  to  the  abattoir  of  political  life. 

9.  He  is  free  of  many  common  faults. 

10.  Then,  meihought,  the  air  grew  denser. 

1 1.  John  lost  his  avocation  by  idleness. 

12.  If  we  examine  with  minuteness  the  falling  snow,  we  will  ob- 
serve that  each  flake  consists  of  a  number  of  exceedingly  delicate 
particles  of  ice. 

13.  The  entertainment  of  last  evening  was  much  enjoyed  by  the 
juvenile  members  of  the  community. 

14.  The  cuisine  was  perfect. 

15.  During  the  ancicn  regime  the  per.sants  were  grievously  op- 
pressed. 

16.  He  dispenses  favors  on  every  side. 

17.  I  have  suffered  remorse  ever  since  I  sold  my  flute. 

18.  My  hat  never  stays  where  I  put  it. 

19.  We  propose  to  spend  the  greater  part  of  the  summer  in  study- 
ing music. 

20.  It  was  a  lapsus  linguae. 

21.  Paterfiimilias  placed  his  hands  in  loving  tenderness  upon  the 
heads  of  the  children. 

22.  A  fault  inevitable  by  literary  ladies. 


STYLE.  179 

23.  The  mischievous  urchins  caught  the  poor  dog,  and  to  his  cau- 
dal appendage  they  affixed  a  hollow  vessel  that  reverberated  most 
discordantly  as  the  yelping  quadruped  ran  down  the  street. 

24.  I  could  not  tell  them  apart. 

25.  I  expect  it  rained  last  night. 

26.  He  went  back  on  us. 

27.  Henry  had  been  from  his  youth  attached  to  the  Church  of 
Rome. 

28.  Sea-birds  have  places  of  rendezvous,  where  they  seem  to  de- 
liberate on  the  affairs  of  the  republic. 

29.  The  minister's  resignation,  in  these  circumstances,  can  not  be 
too  highly  praised. 

30.  Our  cicerone  first  conducted  us  through  the  principal  buildings 
of  the  city. 

31.  The  queen  did  not  want  solicitation  to  consent  to  the  measure. 

32.  The  amende  honorable  having  been  made,  a  hostile  meeting 
was  prevented. 

33.  They  resplended  in  purple  and  gold  lace. 

34.  The  patrons  of  husbandry,  having  thoroughly  examined  all  the  ■ 
inventions  of  genius  to  be  found  within  the  machinery  hall,  retired 
to  an  adjoining  apartment  to  partake  of  liquid  refreshments. 

35.  It  is  aggravating  to  be  subjected  to  the  rudeness  of  ill-bred 
people. 

36.  His  contemporaries  were  anxious  for  his  repute. 

37.  He  sat  upon  a  rural  bench  and  looked  with  admiring  eyes 
upon  the  rustic  scene. 

38.  James  Brown,  a  noted  thief,  was  taken  to  jail  yesterday. 

39.  Excessive  use  of  wine  is  a  bad  custom. 

40.  By  assisting  her,  you  will  confer  to  me  a  favor. 

41.  The  veracity  of  a  statement  is  admitted  when  the  truth  of  its 
author  is  unquestioned. 

42.  Name  the  time,  and  let  it  not  excel  three  days. 

43.  I  have  persuaded  him  that  he  has  made  a  mistake, 

44.  This  state  of  things  kept  us  on  the  qui  vive. 

45.  The  constable  has  abdicated  his  office. 

46.  Exile  evil  thoughts  from  the  heart. 

47.  Alphonsus  ordered  a  great  fire  to  be  prepared,  into  which, 
after  his  majesty  and  the  public  had  joined  in  prayer  for  heavenly 
assistance  in  this  ordeal,  both  the  rivals  were  thrown  into  the  flames. 


l8o  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Sentences. 

Sentences. — As  regards  the  arrangement  of  its  parts, 
there  are  three  quahties  which  a  sentence  should  possess: 
(i)  Clearness;  (2)  Unity;  (3)  Strength;  and  when  it  is  pos- 
sible, the  sentence  should  have  a  pleasing  effect  by  its 
Harmony. 

Clearness. — Clearness  requires  that  the  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence— words,  phrases,  and  clauses — should  be  so  arranged 
as  to  leave  no  possibility  of  doubt  as  to  the  author's  mean- 
ing. Language  is  the  medium  of  communication.  It 
should  reveal  the  whole  thought  as  the  writer  or  speaker 
would  have  it  understood  by  the  person  addressed.  As 
Ouintilian  says,  the  expression  should  be  so  clear  that  the 
hearer  not  only  Diay  but  viiist  understand. 

Clearness  of  style  should  be  the  first  consideration  with 
the  young  composer.  He  should  not  aim  so  much  at 
being  brief  or  forcible,  as  at  being  perspicuous. 

The  faults  opposed  to  clearness  are  two:  (i)  Obscurity, 
which  leaves  us  wholly  in  doubt  as  to  the  author's  mean- 
ing; (2)  Ainbigjtity,  which  leaves  us  in  doubt  as  to  which 
of  tivo  or  more  meanings  is  the  one  intended. 

One  half  of  the  words  of  a  language  qualify  the  other 
half;  and  in  luiglish,  position  is  almost  the  only  thing 
that  shows  the  relation  between  qualifying  adjuncts  and 
the  words  they  modify ;  hence,  it  is  chiefly  through  the 
wrong  placing  of  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  that  clearness 
is  lost.  In  the  English  language,  which  is  very  deficient 
in  inflections  to  mark  the  grammatical  relations  of  words, 
position  is  a  matter  of  prime  importance.  The  sentence, 
"The  savage  here  the  settler  slew,"  is  not  clear.  The  sub- 
ject and  the  object  of  the  transitive  verb  are  both  placed 
before  the  verb;  and  since  there  is  no  peculiar  ending,  in 


STYLE.  I  8  I 

English,  for  a  noun  in  the  singular  number,  objective  case, 
or  singular  number,  nominative  case,  it  is  impossible  to 
know  the  writer's  meaning.  In  Latin  this  is  not  so.  ' '  Puer 
magistrum  amat,"  tJic  boy  the  master  loves,  means,  "The 
boy  loves  the  master"  no  matter  what  the  order  of  the 
words.  This  is  indicated  by  the  inflection,  or  ending,  of 
the  Latin  nouns.  Had  "boy"  been  the  object  and  "mas- 
ter" the  subject  of  the  verb,  the  form  would  have  been, 
"Puerum  magister  amat." 

Clearness  is  lost  usually  by  the  improper  placing  of 
words,  phrases,  and  clauses,  by  the  omission  of  necessary 
words,  or  by  using  words  whose  meaning  is  ambiguous. 

The  following  are  the  principal  rules  for  securing  clear- 
ness: 

Rule  L — Words,  pJirases,  and  clauses  that  are  closely  av- 
iated shmdd  be  placed  as  near  to  each  other  as  possible,  that 
their  vuitual  relation  may  clearly  appear. 

This  rule  is  violated  most  frequently  by  the  improper 
placing  of  adverbs,  of  adverbial  phrases  and  clauses,  of 
participles,  and  of  personal  and  relative  pronouns. 

The  single-word  adverbs  that  are  most  frequently  mis- 
placed, are  "only"  and  "not."  There  are  some  others 
that  often  give  trouble;  as,  "never,"  "even,"  "always," 
"enough,"  and  the  phrase  "at  least." 

Only. — The  strict  rule  is,  that  "only"  should  be  placed 
before  the  word  affected  by  it. 

The  following  are  ambiguous:  "The  address  is  only  to 
be  written  on  this  side";  "The  heavens  are  not  open  to 
the  faithful  only  at  intervals." 

Abbott  says:  "The  best  rule  is  to  avoid  placing  'only' 
between  two  emphatic  words,  and  to  avoid  using  *  only  ' 
where  'alone'  can  be  used  instead. 


I  82  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

"In  strictness  perhaps  the  three  following  sentences: 

He  only  beat  three, 

He  beat  only  three, 

He  beat  three  only, 
ought  to  be  explained,  severally,  thus: 

He  did  no  more  than  beat,  did  not  kill,  three. 

He  beat  no  more  than  three. 

He  beat  three,  and  that  was  all  he  did.  (Here  only 
modifies  the  w^hole  of  the  sentence  and  depreciates  the  ac- 
tion.)" 

Not.  —  "Not"  must  be  taken  as  qualifying  all  that  fol- 
lows, to  the  first  break;  as,   "Not  a  drum  was  heard"; 

"They  have  no  share  in  all  that's  done 
Beneath  the  circuit  of  the  sun." 

Here  the  "no"  is  placed  so  as  to  command  "share" 
with  all  its  qualifications.      This  is  correct. 

"Enough"  is  specially  understood  to  follow  the  word 
it  modifies;  as,   "good  enough,"  "not  kindly  enough." 

"At  least"  is  used  with  more  exactness  of  meaning 
when  it  immediately  precedes  the  word  it  modifies.  "A 
tear  at  least  is  due  to  the  fallen  brave."  "At  least"  is 
intended  to  qualify  "tear";  and  while  we  might  readily 
refer  this  phrase  to  the  word  going  before,  there  would 
be  more  precision  in  this  arrangement:  "To  the  fallen 
brave  is  due  at  least  a  tear,"  or,  "We  owe  to  the  fallen 
bra\-e  at  least  a  tear." 

"Misplacement  is  very  frequent  with  the  combinations 
'  not — but, '  '  not  onl)' — but  also. '  '  I  am  not  come  to  send 
peace  on  the  earth  but  a  sword. '  This  is  a  contraction  for, 
'I  am  not  come  to  send  peace  on  the  earth,  I  am  come  to 
send  a  sword. '  The  better  order  would  be,  '  I  am  come 
not  to  send  peace  on  the  earth  but  a  sword.'" — Bain. 


STYLE.  183 

"He  not  only  gave  me  advice  Init  also  help"  is  wrong. 
"  He  gave  me  not  only  advice,  b^it  also  help"  is  the  proper 
form  for  the  sentence. 

"It  is  not  only  hard  to  distinguish  between  two  little  and 
too  much  reform,  bnt  between  the  good  and  the  evil  in- 
tention of  the  reformers,"  should  be,  "It  is  hard  to  dis- 
tinguish, not  only  between  too  little  and  too  much  reform, 
but  between  the  good,"  etc. 

The  strict  rule  is,  "When  'not  only'  precedes  'but  also,' 
see  that  each  is  followed  by  the  same  part  of  speech." — 
Abbott. 

For  example:  "He  acted  not  only  wisely  but  also 
promptly  (adverbs),  and  this  too,  7iot  only  under  trying 
circumstances,  but  also  in  (prepositions)  the  face  of  strong 
opposition ;  yet  his  acts  were  not  only  successful,  but  also 
worthy  (adjectives)  of  success. " 

We  shall  now  notice  the  placing  of  adjuncts  generally; 
that  is,  the  position  of  qualifying  words,  phrases,  and 
clauses,  whether  as  adjectives  or  as  adverbs. 

In  the  sentence,  "He  looked  and  muttered  in  a  way 
that  could  not  but  fill  those  whose  life  it  was  to  watch 
him  and  obey  him  witJi  great  alarm.''  "Fill"  is  to  be 
qualified,  not  "watch"  or  "obey";  hence,  the  phrase 
"with  great  alarm"  should  be  placed  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  word  "fill." 

"It  was  by  hunting  and  fishing  that  the  Indians  cJiicfiy 
subsisted."  "Chiefly"  is  not  intended  to  qualify  "sub- 
sisted"; it  restricts  the  means  of  gaining  a  subsistence. 

"The  French  nation  is  not  consoled  for  the  misfortunes 
which  it  has  endured  by  the  incidental  triumph  of  justice  in 
Italy."      "Consoled"  is  the  word  meant  to  be  qualified. 

"A  pocket-book  was  found  by  a  boy  made  of  leather." 
"Made"  should  modify  "pocket-book." 


184  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC. 

"  'I  must  not  forget  the  two  sons  of  this  aspiring  cit- 
izen, %vho  came  to  church  in  a  dashing  curricle.'  Without 
the  context,  we  can  not  be  quite  certain,  although  we 
may  think  it  highly  probable,  that  wlio  refers,  not  to  the 
near  noun  citizen,  but  to  the  prominent  noun  sons.  The 
possessive  —  'citizen's  two  sons,  ivho' — would  remove  all 
doubt." — Baiti. 

"This  way  will  direct  you  to  a  gcntleviaii  s  house  that 
hath  skill  to  take  off  these  burdens."  Correct  to  this:  "to 
the  house  of  a  gentlemmi  that  hath  skill." 

"The  farmer's  orchard  is  respected  by  the  boy  who 
oxvns  a  large  dog.''  Changed:  "The  boy  respects  the 
orchard  of  the  farmer  luho  oivns  a  large  dog." 

"Nor  better  was  their  lot  ivho  fled."  Changed:  "Nor 
better  was  the  lot  of  them  that  fed." 

Each  qualifying  word  or  set  of  words  should  be  looked 
at  in  its  setting ;  we  should  try  the  bearing  both  before  and 
after,  and  place  the  word  where  it  will  modify  only  the 
subject  intended.  Sometimes  we  find,  thrown  into  the 
middle  of  a  sentence,  a  grammatical  expression  that  can 
be  connected  in  meaning  either  with  what  goes  before,  or 
with  what  follows.     This  is  a  common  source  of  ambiguity. 

"Gibbon  incurred  the  imputation  of  avarice,  while  he 
was,  in  fact,  exceeding  generous,  simply  by  his  ignorance  of 
the  purchasing  i)ower  of  money. "  The  words  "exceeding 
generous"  may  be  construed  cither  with  the  words  which 
precede,  or  with  those  which  follow.  We  may  understand 
the  author  as  meaning  cither  "exceeding  generous  not- 
withstanding the  imputation  of  avarice,"  or  "exceeding 
generous  simply  by  his  ignorance  of  the  purchasing  power 
of  money."  The  proper  arrangement  would  be:  "Gib- 
bon, while,  in  fact,  exceeding  generous,  incurred  the  im- 
putation of  a\'aricc,  simply  1)\'  his  ignorance,"  etc. 


STYLE.  185 

Personal  pronouns  should  be  used  with  care.  The  pro- 
noun is  by  nature  a  kind  of  universal  noun  ;  it  may  refer  to 
anything  of  the  same  gender,  number,  and  person,  hence 
care  is  required  to  have  it  suggest  at  once  its  antecedent. 
The  strict  rule  is  that  pronouns  should  follow  the  nouns  to 
which  they  refer,  without  the  intervention  of  another  noun. 
Ambiguity  in  the  use  of  pronouns  may  be  avoided  some^ 
times  by  substituting  direct  for  hidirect  narration,  some- 
times by  repeating  the  antecedent,  sometimes  by  changing 
the  number  of  one  of  the  antecedents,  sometimes  by  changing 
the  order.  Occasionally  sentences  in  themselves  not  clear 
may  be  tolerated  if  the  context  gives  the  meaning  unmis- 
takably. 

"John  asked  his  cousin  to  bring  his  hat,  as  he  was  going 
on  an  errand  for  his  mother. "  This  is  objectionable  because 
there  is  doubt  as  to  the  antecedent  of  "his,"  in  two  cases. 
To  correct  it  we  must  in  some  way  make  perfectly  evident 
what  is  meant.  By  changing  to  direct  narration,  we  can 
express  every  possible  meaning  with  perfect  clearness ;  as, 
"John  said  to  his  cousin,  'Bring  me  my  hat;  I  am  going 
on  an  errand  for  your  mother.'  " 

"He  said  that  he  had  conversed  w^ith  Mr.  Smith,  and 
his  proposition  was  impracticable."  Here  the  only  escape 
from  ambiguity  is  to  express  the  antecedent  in  full.  "Mr. 
Smith's"  should  be  substituted  for  "his." 

"They  were  persons  of  high  hopes,  before  thej  (hopes) 
were  clouded  over  by  misfortune."  This  may  be  improved 
by  changing  the  number  of  one  of  the  antecedents :  "They 
were  full  of  hope  until  //  was  clouded  over  by  misfortune." 

"Joe  Brown,  the  brother  of  Faith  Brown,  who  gave  me 
this  book,  has  gone  to  Europe."  By  changing  the  order 
we  may  effect  an  improvement;  as,  "Faith  Brown's  brother 
Joe,  who  gave  me  this  book,  has  gone  to  Europe." 


I  86  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Rule  II.  —  Omit  Jio  ivord  that  is  necessary  to  the  complete 
expression  of  the  thought. 

Words  which  should  not  be  omitted: 

1.  The  subject,  or  a  pronoun  standing  for  it,  should 
be  repeated  whenever  its  omission  would  cause  ambiguity 
or  obscurity.     The  following  is  ambiguous : 

"He  is  supposed  to  be  working  for  his  party,  which  in 
truth  is  suffering  from  his  neglect,  and  (he?  or  it?)  will  not 
permit  any  one  else  to  give  it  advice." 

The  relative  should  be  repeated  when  it  is  the  subject 
of  several  verbs ;  as,  "  The  father  was  awaiting  his  son, 
who  had  never  failed  to  gather  with  the  family  around 
the  Christmas  board,  and  was  prompted  by  the  closest  ties 
of  natural  affection  to  speed  this  reunion."  Say,  ''who 
was  prompted,"  etc.  Otherwise  it  might  mean  that  "the 
father"  was  prompted. 

2.  Repeat  the  preposition  after  an  intervening  con- 
junction, especially  if  a  verb  and  an  object  also  intervene. 

"Had  John  inherited  the  great  qualities  of  his  father, 
Henry  Beauclerc,  or  the  conqueror,"  etc.  The  omission 
of  the  preposition  is  misleading  to  such  as  are  not  ac- 
quainted with  the  facts  from  other  sources.  Macaulay's 
ari'angement  of  this  sentence  is,  however,  perfectly  clear: 
"Had  John  inherited  the  great  qualities  of  his  father,  of 
Henry  Beauclerc,  or  of  \.\\q  conqueror,"  etc. 

3.  Repeat  the  article,  "A,"  "An,"  or  "The,"  before 
each  of  two  or  more  connected  nouns  denoting  things  that 
are  to  be  distinguished  from  each  other  or  emphasized ;  as, 
"Wanted,  a  nurse  and  housemaid."  This  means  that  the 
same  person  is  to  be  both.  If  two  persons  are  wanted,  one 
for  each  office,  the  article  should  be  repeated. 


STYLE.  187 

"The"  should  be  repeated  when  the  object  is  not  suffi- 
ciently distinguished  without  it.  "They  possessed  both 
tlie  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction."  Say,  "both  the  civil 
and  tJie  criminal  jurisdiction." 

"  The  pursuers  and  pursued  entered  the  gates  together." 
The  contrast  requires  the  repetition  of  the  article;  thus, 
"  The  pursuers  and  the  pursued  entered  the  gates  together." 

4.  Conjunctions  should  be  repeated  where  the  omission 
would  cause  ambiguity.  Should  there  be  several  verbs  at 
some  distance  from  a  conjunction  on  which  they  depend, 
the  conjunction  must  be  repeated. 

"When  we  look  back  upon  the  havoc  that  two  hundred 
years  have  made  in  the  ranks  of  our  national  authors — and, 
above  all,  (when)  we  refer  their  rapid  disappearance  to  the 
quick  succession  of  new  competitors — we  can  not  help  being 
dismayed  at  the  prospect  that  lies  before  the  writers  of  the 
present  day."  Here,  if  "when"  is  omitted  we  at  once 
substitute  a  parenthetical  statement  for  what  is  really  a  sub- 
ordinate clause. 

In  reporting  a  speech  or  an  opinion,  "that"  must  be 
continually  repeated,  to  avoid  the  danger  of  confusing 
what  the  writer  says  with  what  others  say. 

In  the  examples  that  follow,  notice  how  the  sentences 
gain  in  clearness  by  the  repetition  of  the  conjunction:  "  He 
lives  in  the  family  rather  as  a  relative,  than  as  a  depend- 
ent."  "Do  not  forget  that  the  youth  was  the  greater  fool 
of  the  two,  and  tliat  the  master  served  such  a  booby  rightly 
in  turning  him  out-of-doors." 

5.  The  verb,  or  the  verb  -with  its  subject  should  be 
repeated  after  the  conjunctions  "than,"  "as,"  etc.,  when 
the  omission  would  cause  ambiguity.     Thus : 

"  Lovest  thou  me  more  ttian  these?"  might  convey  two 


I  88  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

meanings,  either,  "more  than  these  love  me"  or,  "more 
than  thou  lovest  these." 

"I  hope  you  will  find  me  as  faitliful  as  William,"  /.  e., 
either  as  faithful  as  William  finds  me  or  as  faithful  as  you 
find  William. 

Even  auxiliary  verbs,  as  well  as  principal  verbs,  must 
follow  the  rule  of  repetition. 

"The  Doctor  was  a  very  great  favorite,  and  received  with 
much  respect  and  honor."  Say,  "was  received."  Some- 
times the  principal  verb  is  omitted,  much  to  the  injury  of 
the  sentence ;  as,  "I  have  always  and  still  do  believ^e  that 
the  soul  is  immortal."  Say,  "I  have  always  believed  and 
still  do  believe  that  the  soul  is  immortal." 


EXERCISE  XLVIII. 

Direction.  —  Criticise  the  following  sentences  with  regard  to  clearness: 

1.  The  English  nearly  lost  two  thousand  men. 

2.  Louisiana  not  only  produces  cotton  in  abundance,  but  sugar 
also. 

3.  The  Romans,  at  least,  understood  liberty,  as  well  as  we. 

4.  Among  the  numberless  contradictions,  this  one  predominates, 
in  our  nature. 

5.  A  man  would  not  scruple  to  pick  a  pocket  who  could  make  so 
vile  a  pun. 

6.  According  to  his  conduct,  in  this  world,  a  man's  worth  is  esti- 
mated. 

7.  It  is  true  wliat  he  says,  but  it  is  not  applicable  to  the  point. 

8.  Mary  told  her  sister  that  she  was  going  to  get  something  pretty 
for  her  at  the  store,  and  that  she  ought  to  go  along. 

9.  The  Spartans  prayed  the  gods,  notwithstanding  their  austerity, 
to  grant  them  the  beautiful  with  the  good. 

10.  The  slaves  were  sold  by  their  masters  whenever  they  were 
forced  by  their  recklessness  or  by  their  misfortunes  to  have  their  vaiuo 
in  monev. 


STYLE.  1 89 

11.  People  do  not  simply  admire  an  orator,  that  he  can  use  big 
words. 

12.  He  should  care  no  more  for  meeting  that  phantom,  opinion, 
than  a  ghost. 

13.  The  error  has  and  will  again  be  exploded. 

14.  The  lunatic,  lover,  and  poet  are  of  imagination  all  compact. 

15.  Six  shots  were  fired  by  those  who  were  placed  to  guard  the 
treasure  without  effect. 

16.  He  left  the  room  very  slowly  repeating  his  determination  not 
to  obey. 

17.  Lothair  was  unaffectedly  gratified  at  not  only  receiving  his 
friends  at  his  own  castle,  but  under  these  circumstances  of  indmacy. 

18.  You  are  not  obliged  to  take  any  money  which  is  not  gold  or 
silver:  not  only  the  half-pence  or  farthings  of  England,  but  of  any 
other  country. 

19.  The  Sabbath  was  regarded  as  a  day  for  rest  from  worldly  oc- 
cupation and  holy  joy. 

20.  My  rebuke  did  her  good. 

21.  There  are  few  artists  who  paint  horses  as  well  as  Rosa  Bon- 
heur. 

22.  And  thus  the  son  the  fervent  sire  addressed. 

23.  Those  who  drove  James  from  his  throne,  seduced  his  army, 
ahenated  his  friends,  imprisoned  him  in  his  palace,  broke  in  upon 
his  very  slumbers  by  imperious  messages,  and  pursued  him  with  fire 
and  sword  from  one  part  of  the  empire  to  the  other,  were  his  nephew 
and  his  two  daughters. 

24.  vShe  has  worn  to-day  a  black  and  white  dress. 

25.  Remember,  you  must  be  diligent  to  be  successful,  and  if  the 
idle  have  failed  it  is  only  because  of  idleness. 

26.  I  never  expect  to  see  you  again. 

27.  Wolsey  left  at  his  death  many  buildings  which  he  had  begun, 
in  an  unfinished  state,  and  which  no  one  expects  to  see  complete. 

28.  Cardinal  Richelieu  hated  Buckingham  as  sincerely  as  the 
Spaniard  Olivares. 

29.  Adversity  gives  wisdom ;  it  ought  to  be  greatly  prized. 

30.  The  Emperor  Alexander  presented  to  the  Emperor  William  a 
portrait  of  himself. 

31.  He  aimed  at  nothing  less  than  the  crown. 

32.  The  boy  did  not  want  opportunities. 


ipO  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

Unity. — Unity  is  that  property  in  a  sentence  which 
keeps  all  its  parts  in  connection  with  the  principal  thought, 
and  logically  subordinate  to  it.  Unity  is  such  expression 
of  thought  as  causes  each  sentence  to  make  one  impres- 
sion. A  sentence  may  consist  of  parts  so  combined  as  to 
produce  the  impression  of  oneness,  or  it  may  be  so  loosely 
thrown  together  as  to  produce  only  a  confused  and  indef- 
inite idea  in  the  mind.  The  test  of  unity  is  the  couiection 
between  the  parts.  If  the  connection  is  close,  the  sen- 
tence has  unity ;  if  it  is  remote,  the  sentence  lacks  unity. 

The  following  are  the  principal  rules  for  preserving  the 
unity  of  a  sentence  : 

Rule  I.  —  The  subject  should  be  clianged  as  little  as  pos- 
sible in  the  course  of  the  sentence. 

It  is  not  meant  by  this  that  every  sentence  should  have 
but  one  subject.  Every  complex  sentence  must,  from  its 
nature,  have  more  than  one  subject.  There  is,  however, 
in  any  sentence,  the  name  of  some  person  or  thing  which 
is  the  prominent  subject  of  discourse;  this  should  be  con- 
tinued, if  possible,  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the 
proposition.  Thus:  "After  we  reached  Rouen,  they  soon 
conducted  me  to  ii6  Riviere  Place,  where  I  was  received 
by  my  friend,  who  greatly  rejoiced  to  see  me." 

Here,  from  the  frequent  changing  of  subject  ("we," 
"they,"  "I,"  "who,")  the  sense  of  connection  is  almost 
lost.  Alter,  so  as  to  preserve  the  same  subject  or  princi- 
pal word  throughout,  and  thereby  secure  the  unity  of  the 
sentence:  "After  we  reached  Rouen,  I  was  conducted  to 
ii6  Riviere  Place,  where  I  was  received,  with  great  joy, 
by  my  friend";  or,  "After  reaching  Rouen,  I  was  con- 
ducted to  II 6  Riviere  Place,  where  I  was  received,  with 
great  joy,  by  my  frjend." 


STYLE. 


191 


Rule  II. — Ideas  that  have  but  little  connection  should  be 
expjrssed  in  separate  sentences,  and  not  crowded  into  one. 

The  great  danger  of  violating  this  rule  is  in  writing  long 
compound  sentences.  The  compound  sentence  contains 
two,  and  may  contain  many,  principal  propositions,  and, 
hence,  the  liability  to  crowding.  If  the  propositions  be 
closely  connected  in  thought,  they  should  be  united  into  one 
compound  sentence ;  but  if  there  be  no  logical  connection, 
the  propositions  should  be  stated  as  separate  sentences ;  for 
example,  "In  days  long  ago,  when  birds  and  flowers  and 
trees  could  talk,  in  a  country  far  over  the  sea,  there  was  a 
beautiful  fountain  in  an  opening  in  the  forest,  and  the  little 
sunbeams  that  crept  between  the  leaves,  falling  upon  it, 
made  it  shine  and  sparkle  like  silver;  and  you  would  have 
thought  the  wind  was  playing  a  polka  among  the  trees,  so 
gayly  did  the  fountain  dance  and  bubble  over  the  rocks." 

This  sentence  contains  material  for  three.  Thus:  "In 
days  long  ago,  when  birds  and  flowers  and  trees  could  talk, 
there  was,  in  a  country  far  over  the  sea,  a  beautiful  fount- 
ain. It  was  in  an  opening  in  the  forest,  and  the  little  sun- 
beams that  crept  between  the  leaves,  falling  upon  it,  made 
it  shine  and  sparkle  like  silver.  You  would  have  thought 
the  wind  was  playing  a  polka  among  the  trees,  so  gayly  did 
the  fountain  dance  and  bubble  over  the  rocks." 

There  is  not  the  least  difficulty  in  preserving  the  unity  of 
a  simple  sentence ;  it  is  secured  by  the  very  form  of  the 
sentence. 

Rule  III. — Avoid  using  relative  clauses  in  clauses  that  are 
themselves  relative. 

This  rule  is  frequently  violated  in  forming  complex  sen- 
tences. "The  House  That  Jack  Built"  furnishes  an  illus- 
tration. 


192  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

"His  reign  was  like  the  course  of  a  brilliant  and  rapid 
meteor,  ivliich  shoots  along  the  face  of  heaven,  and  which 
sheds  around  an  unnecessary  and  portentous  light,  zvhich  is 
instantly  swallowed  up  by  universal  darkness." 

A  better  arrangement  would  be:  "  His  reign  was  like 
the  course  of  a  rapid  and  brilliant  meteor,  shooting  along 
the  face  of  heaven,  and  shedding  around  an  unnecessary 
and  portentous  light,  which  is  instantly  swallowed  up,"  etc. 

This  rule  does  not  forbid  two  or  more  relative  clauses 
having  a  common  dependence  upon  some  preceding  word 
or  clause;  as,  "He  was  a  soldier  w/io  disregarded  every 
hardship,  who  courted  every  danger,  and  2i'ho  faced  it  boldly 
and  even  joyfully  when  found." 

Rule  IV. — Loig  parentlicscs  in  the  middle  of  a  sentence 
should  be  avoided,  as  i)iterfeyi]ig  ivith  unity  of  expression. 

Parentheses  were  formerly  much  more  frequently  em- 
ployed than  they  are  at  present.  Their  excessive  use  in- 
dicates a  lack  of  art  in  writing.  They  can  in  nearly  all 
cases  be  avoided.  We  usually  remedy  the  fault  by  remov- 
ing the  matter  from  the  parenthesis  and  making  it  into  a 
separate  sentence;  but  if  the  matter  is  not  necessary  to  the 
completeness  of  the  thought,  it  may  be  omitted  altogether. 
For  example:  "'Mind  your  own  business'  is  an  ancient 
proverb  (indeed  all  proverbs  seem  to  be  ancient),  which  de- 
serves a  due  degree  of  attention  from  all  mankind."  To 
correct,  we  may  say,  "'Mind  your  own  business'  is  an 
ancient  proverb  which  deserves  a  due  degree  of  attention 
from  all  mankind."  "The  learning  of  Sir  William  Jones 
(he  was  master  of  twenty-eight  languages),  was  the  wonder 
of  his  contemporaries."  Corrected:  "Sir  William  Jones 
was  master  of  twenty-eight  languages.  His  learning  was 
the  wonder  of  his  contemporaries." 


STYLE. 


193 


Rule  V. — Avoid  adding  a  supplcuicntary  clause  to  a  scn- 
taicc  that  has  been  apparently  brought  to  a  elose. 

"An  unfinished  sentence  is  no  sentence  at  all.  But  very 
often  we  meet  with  sentences  that  are,  so  to  speak,  more 
than  finished.  When  we  have  arrived  at  what  we  expected 
was  to  be  the  conclusion ;  when  we  have  come  to  the  word 
on  which  the  mind  is  naturally  led,  by  what  went  before, 
to  rest;  unexpectedly,  some  circumstance  pops  out,  which 
ought  to  have  been  omitted,  or  to  have  been  disposed  of 
elsewhere ;  but  which  is  left  lagging  behind,  like  a  tail  ad- 
justed to  the  sentence.  All  these  adjections  to  the  proper 
close  disfigure  a  sentence  extremely." — Blair. 

"We  start  on  our  journey  next  week;  while  abroad  we 
shall  visit  many  places  of  note,  and  linger  amid  scenes 
made  dear  by  associations,  provided  our  brother  ean  aceom- 
pany  us.''  The  last  clause  destroys  the  unity  of  the  sen- 
tence ;  it  should  either  have  been  disposed  of  elsewhere  in 
the  sentence  or  have  been  left  out  altogether. 

EXERCISE  XLIX. 

Direction.  — Criticise  the  sentences  with  regard  to  unity: 

1.  Sir  Andrew  Freeport  has  a  letter  from  one  of  his  correspond- 
ents in  those  parts,  that  informs  him  that  the  old  man  caught  a  cold 
at  the  county  sessions,  as  he  was  very  warmly  promoting  an  address 
of  his  own  penning,  in  which  he  succeeded  according  to  his  wishes. 

2.  The  landlady  sent  her  son  to  get  me  some  cream,  and  he  was 
just  such  a  chap  as  I  was  at  his  age,  and  dressed  just  in  the  same  sort 
of  way,  his  main  garment  being  a  blue  smock-frock,  faded  from  wear, 
and  mended  with  pieces  of  new  stuff,  and,  of  course,  not  faded. 

3.  Having  completed  our  arrangements  for  the  voyage,  we  set  sail 
on  the  4th  of  July,  which  celebrates  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

4.  Here  we  stopped  to  talk  to  Mr.  Blank,  who  was  returning  from 
Batesville,  where  he  had  called  to  see  our  old  friend  Simpson,  who 

Rhet.— 17. 


ICJ4  COMrOSIllUN   AND  KHETOKIC. 

has  been  sick  for  the  past  two  months,  and  of  whose  returning  health 
v.e  were  dehghted  to  hear. 

5.  "Wait,"  said  the  tailor,  "I  must  go  out  and  buy  a  piece  of 
cloth ;  when  I  return,  you  will  hear  what  I  expect  you  to  do ;  at  least 
you  are  willing  to  stay." 

6.  What  He  said,  after  His  washing  the  disciples'  feet,  (an  action 
wherein  there  was  such  an  admirable  mixture  of  humihty  and  love, 
that  it  is  not  possible  to  conceive  which  excelled,  for  they  w^ere  both 
in  the  highest  perfection,)  "  I  have  given  you  an  example,  that  as  I 
have  done  to  you,  so  do  ye,"  is  applicable  to  all  the  kinds  of  virtues 
and  graces  exhibited  in  His  practice. 

7.  It  is  a  winter's  day  when  we  take  our  peep  into  the  school- 
room, and  see  the  great  logs  of  wood  that  have  been  rolled  into  the 
fire-place,  and  the  broad,  bright  blaze  that  is  leaping  up  the  chimney, 
while  every  few  moments  a  vast  cloud  of  smoke  is  puffed  into  the 
room,  which  sails  slowly  over  the  heads  of  the  scholars,  until  it  grad- 
ually settles  upon  the  walls  and  ceiling,  which  are  blackened  with  the 
smoke  of  many  years  already. 

8.  She  dropped  her  face  on  my  old  nurse's  breast,  and,  ceasing 
this  supplication,  which  in  its  agony  and  grief  was  half  a  woman's, 
half  a  child's,  as  all  her  manner  was  (being,  in  that,  more  natural,  and 
better  suited  to  her  beauty,  as  I  thought,  than  any  other  manner  could 
have  been),  wept  silently,  while  my  old  nurse  hushed  her  like  an  infant. 

9.  She  was  looking  at  an  humble  stone  which  told  of  a  young  man 
who  had  died  at  twenty-three  years  of  age,  fifty-five  years  ago,  when 
she  heard  a  faltering  step  approaching,  and  looking  around  saw  a 
feeble  woman  bent  with  the  weight  of  years,  who  tottered  to  the  foot 
of  that  same  grave  and  asked  her  to  read  the  writing  on  the  stone. 

10.  Their  patroness  then  shut  the  door,  and  sat  herself  down  by 
her  drum  at  an  open  window;  and,  the  steps  being  struck  by  George 
and  stowed  under  the  carriage,  away  they  went,  with  a  great  noise 
of  flapping  and  creaking  and  straining,  and  the  bright  brass  knocker, 
which  nobody  ever  knocked  at,  knocking  one  perpetual  double-knock 
of  its  own  accord  as  they  jolted  heavily  along. 

11.  To  whom  my  lord  said,  "Father  Abbot,  I  am  come  hither 
to  leave  my  bones  among  you;"  whom  they  brought  on  his  mule 
to  the  stairs'  foot  of  his  chamber,  and  there  alighted,  and  Master 
Kingston  then  took  him  by  the  arm,  and  led  him  up  the  stairs;  who 
told  me  afterwards  that  he  never  carried  so  heavy  a  burden  in  all 
his  life. 


STYLE. 


195 


12.  So  you  stand  alone  in  a  tangled  wilderness  outside,  and  in 
the  blackness  of  doubt  inside;  and  you  feel  the  need  of  a  guide  for 
the  one,  and  a  light  for  the  other,  if  you  can  find  one. 

13.  Goethe  read  in  a  manner  which  was  peculiar  to  him;  and  as 
the  incidents  of  the  little  story  came  forth  in  his  serious,  simple  voice, 
in  one  unmoved,  unaltering  tone  ("just  as  if  nothing  of  it  was  present 
before  him,  but  all  was  only  historical;  as  if  the  shadows  of  this 
poetic  creation  did  not  affect  him  in  a  life-like  manner,  but  only 
glided  gently  by,")  a  new  ideal  of  letters  and  of  life  arose  in  the 
mind  of  his  listener. 

14.  The  body  of  Stephen  Girard  lies  in  a  sarcophagus  in  the  ves- 
tibule of  the  main  college  building,  which  is  built  after  the  model 
of  a  Grecian  temple ;  its  thirty-four  Corinthian  columns  measure  six 
feet  in  diameter,  and  are  fifty-five  feet  high,  and  cost  $i5,ock)  each. 

Strength. — A  sentence  may  be  constructed  in  accord- 
ance with  the  rules  for  clearness  and  unity,  and  still  pro- 
duce but  little  effect;  something  is  wanting  to  fix  the  at- 
tention and  sustain  the  interest.  This  important  quality 
is  strength,  variously  called  "energy,"  "vivacity,"  or 
"animation";  it  causes  the  sentence  to  produce  a  forcible 
and  vivid  impression.  Style  is  greatly  affected  by  the 
strength  or  the  feebleness  of  the  thought,  but  even  com- 
monplace thoughts  may  be  expressed  in  energetic  lan- 
guage. The  quality  of  the  thought  belongs  to  invention; 
the  term  "energy  of  expression"  has  reference  solely  to 
the  fitness  of  the  words  to  convey  the  ideas  with  force. 
Thoughts  must  be  so  presented  as  to  call  into  vigorous 
energy  the  mental  powers  of  the  reader. 

Among  the  various  means  of  securing  energy  of  expres- 
sion we  note  the  following: 

Rule  I. — Be  concise. 

Conciseness,  or  brevity  of  expression,  consists  in  using 
the  smallest  number  of  words  necessary  for  the  complete 
expression  of  a  thought — it  is   fullness  in  little  compass. 


196  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

A  thought  that  can  be  as  well  presented  in  a  sentence  or 
two,  should  not  be  drawn  out  into  ten  times  the  number. 
"Many  words  darken  counsel";  and  this  for  the  reason 
that  surplus  words,  by  absorbing  mental  force,  diminish 
the  strength  of  the  impression. 

The  most  effective  writers  are  concise  and  terse  in  style: 

Nothing  is  so  fleeting  as  form ;  yet  never  does  it  quite  deny  itself. 
If  I  can  be  firm  enough  to-day  to  do  right,  and  scorn  eyes,  I  must 
have  done  so  much  right  before  as  to  defend  me  now. — Emerson. 

Speech  is  but  broken  hght  upon  the  depths  of  the  unspoken. — 
George  Eliot. 

They  make  a  sohtude,  and  call  it  peace. —  Tacitus. 

Conciseness  implies  the  use  of  no  unnecessary  words, 
however  many  may  be  employed ;  it  tells  the  whole  thing, 
but  tells  it  compactly.  The  following  will  be  found  a  use- 
ful general  rule: 

Go  critically  over  iv/iat  yoii  have  ivrittcn,  and  strike  out 
every  zvord,  phrase,  and  clause,  the  oi}iissio)i  of  wJncJi  neither 
impairs  the  clearness  nor  the  force  of  the  sentence. 

Conciseness  is  violated  in  three  ways: 

(i)  By  redundancy,  or  the  use  of  words  that  the  sense 
does  not  require. 

Redundancy  is  most  likely  to  show  itself  in  the  use  of 
adjectives.  These  words  are  usually  descriptive,  and  hence 
serve  to  enrich  style,  but  when  used  in  excess  they  over- 
burden the  sentence.  It  is  well  to  strike  out  such  words 
as  "very,"  "stupendous,"  "inexpressible,"  "magnifi- 
cent," "unprecedented,"  etc.,  whenever  they  are  not 
strictly  required. 

Another  common  source  of  redundancy  is  the  use  of  a 
separate  word  to  express  an  idea  which  is  imj)licd  in  one 
of  the  words  already  used;  as,   "The  universal  opinion  of 


STYLE. 


197 


all  men" ;  "They  returned  back  again  to  the  same  place 
from  zvJience  they  c^xraQ  forth"  ;  "His  very  excellent  re- 
marks were  most  intolerable  and  extremely  inconsistent  in 
the  eyes  of  his  enemies";  "The  boimdlcss  plains  in  the 
heart  of  the  country  furnished  inexJiaustible  supplies  of 
corn,  that  would  have  almost  sufficed  for  twice  the  pop- 
ulation"; "The  immense  revenue  of  this  fertile  land  is  un- 
precedeiited  among  nations;  its  vastness  is  beyond  concep- 
tion;  it  fills  a  treasury  that  could  scarcely  be  depleted  by 
a  threey ears'  war." 

(2)  By  tautology,  or  the  repetition  of  the  same  idea  in 
different  words ;  thus,  ''He  zvalked  on  foot,  bareheaded"; 
' '  The  names  of  our  forefathers  who  came  before  ns  should 
be  held  in  reverence";  "The  prophecy  has  been  fulfilled 
literally  and  to  the  letter." 

(3)  By  circnmlocntion,  or  a  roundabout,  diffuse  way  of 
expressing  a  thought. 

A  lengthened,  roundabout  mode  of  speech  is  allowable 
for  the  sake  of  variety  or  emphasis,  or  when  a  direct  as- 
sertion might  be  offensive ;  but  when  none  of  these  ends 
is  accomplished,  it  is  feeble  and  affected.  For  example : 
"That  night  Richard  Penderell  and  I  went  to  Mr.  Pitch- 
croft's,  about  six  or  seven  miles  off,  where  I  found  the  gen- 
tleman of  the  house,  and  an  old  grandmother  of  his,  and 
Father  Hurlston,  who  had  then  the  care  as  governor,  of 
bringing  up  two  young  gentlemen,  who,  I  think,  were  Sir 
John  Preston  and  his  brother,  they  being  boys." 

Condensed:  "That  night  Richard  Penderell  and  I  went 
to  Mr.  Pitchcroft's,  a  distance  of  six  or  seven  miles ;  there 
we  found  Mr.  Pitchcroft,  his  grandmother,  and  Father 
Hurlston,  who  then  had  the  care,  as  governor,  of  two  boys, 
probably  Sir  John  Preston  and  brother." 

The  remedy  for  circumlocution  consists,  not  in  leaving 


198  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

out  parts,  but  in  recasting  the  whole  in  terser  language. 
Condensation  is  sometimes  effected  by  substituting  words 
for  phrases,  and  ivords  or  pJirascs  for  clauses. 

Rule  II.  —  The  most  important  zvords  should  occupy  the 
most  promineiit  places.  These  are  the  beginning  and  the  end 
of  a  sentence ;  of  the  two  places,  hoivever,  the  end  is  the  more 
emphatic. 

To  place  a  word  or  phrase  or  clause  out  of  its  wonted 
position  is  to  indicate  that  a  heavier  burden  of  thought  is 
laid  upon  it  than  it  ordinarily  bears,  heavier  than  is  borne 
by  any  of  its  neighbors.  The  more  important  words  are 
usually  in  the  predicate — the  latter  part  of  the  sentence. 
To  bring  these  to  the  beginning  of  the  sentence  is  to  re- 
move them  farthest  from  their  natural  place,  and  to  give 
them  the  greatest  possible  emphasis  that  position  can  be- 
stow. The  subject,  if  unusually  emphatic,  should  often  be 
removed  from  the  beginning  of  the  sentence. 

As  the  end  of  the  sentence  is  the  most  emphatic  place, 
it  is  a  good  general  rule  not  to  terminate  a  sentence  with  an 
adverb,  preposition,  or  other  particle.  Thus :  ' '  What  a 
pity  it  is  that  even  the  best  should  speak  to  our  understand- 
ings so  seldom."  Here  the  adverb  usurps  the  prominent 
place.  Change  thus:  "should  so  seldom  speak  to  our  im- 
derstandings. "  "Who  had  promised,  upon  the  finst  notice 
of  his  arrival,  to  resort  with  all  their  friends  and  followers 
to  him."  Change  thus:  "to  resort  to  him  with  all  their 
friends,"  etc.  "And  so  begin  his  examination  in  such  arti- 
cles as  he  could  raise  the  greatest  bustle  ///. "  This  is  both 
weak  and  inelegant.  An  improvement  would  be:  "  in  those 
articles  in  which  he  could  raise  the  greatest  bustle." 

A  sentence  should  not  close  witli  an  unimportant  clause; 
nor  should  it  end  in  an  abrupt  and  inharmonious  manner, 


STYLE.  199 

even  though  the  words  are  strongly  emphatic ;  for  example, 
"The  soldier,  transfixed  with  the  spear,  '  zvrithcd.'  We 
want  a  longer  ending,  '  fell  writhing  to  the  ground, '  or, 
'writhed  in  the  agonies  of  death.'  " — Abbott. 

Rule  III.  —  The  strength  of  a  sentence  may  often  be  in- 
creased by  the  proper  nse  of  connectives. 

Connectives  are  words  having  no  significance  of  their  own, 
but  whose  office  it  is  to  indicate  the  relations  of  words  and 
clauses.  "These  little  words,  but,  and,  ivhich,  whose,  where, 
etc.,  are  frequently  the  most  important  of  any;  they  are 
the  joints  or  hinges  upon  which  all  sentences  turn,  and,  of 
course,  much,  both  of  the  gracefulness  and  strength  of 
sentences,  must  depend  upon  such  particles." — Blair. 

The  shortest  conjunctions  should  be  used.  Most  conjunc- 
tions are  words  of  one  syllable,  but  many  contain  several 
syllables ;  as,  nevertheless,  notzvitJistanding,  fnrthervwrc,  for- 
asmuch, etc.  The  length  of  these  makes  them  too  promi- 
nent; monosyllabic  connectives  should,  if  possible,  be  sub- 
stituted for  them.  The  use  of  these  drawling  conjunctions 
is  characteristic  of  our  older  writers ;  they  are  rare  in  good 
modern  authors. 

The  omission  of  particles  is  generally  forceful  by  admit- 
ting the  concentration  of  energy  on  the  significant  parts, 
and  by  the  exciting  effect  of  rapid  utterance.  Thus:  "A 
multitude  fills  roads,  paths,  bridges,  plains,  hills,  valleys, 
woods,  choked  up  by  the  flight  of  forty  thousand  men. 
Cries,  despair;  knapsacks  and  muskets  cast  into  the  grow- 
ing rye ;  passages  forced  at  the  point  of  the  sword ;  no 
more  comrades,  no  more  officers,  no  more  generals,  inex- 
pressible dismay. " —  Victor  Hugo. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  desired  that  the  mind  should 
dwell  upon  the  various  circumstances,  connectives  may  be 


200  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

used  with  great  frequency.  In  the  following  examples  ob- 
serve how  the  several  items  are,  by  the  use  of  connectives, 
separated  and  distinguished,  and  the  attention  detained: 

Thus  with  the  year 
Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns 
Day,  or  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  morn. 
Or  sight  of  vernal  bloom,  or  summer's  rose. 
Or  flocks,  or  herds,  or  human  face  divine. — Milton. 

I  am  persuaded  that  neither  death,  nor  life,  nor  angels,  nor  prin- 
cipalities, nor  powers,  nor  things  present,  nor  things  to  come,  nor 
height,  7ior  depth,  7ior  any  other  creature,  shall  be  able  to  separate  us 
from  the  love  of  God,  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus  our  Lord. — St.  Paul. 

The  animation  of  the  one  method,  and  the  gravity  of  the 
other,  are  seen  together  here : 

So  eagerly  the  fiend 
O'er  bog  or  steep,  through  straight,  rough,  dense,  or  rare, 
With  head,  hands,  wings,  or  feet,  pursues  his  way. 
And  swims,  or  sinks,  or  wades,  or  creeps,  or  flies. — Milton. 

Splitting  particles. —  "  I  have  often  spoken  to  you  upon 
matters  kindred  to,  but  perhaps  not  distinctly  connected 
with,  my  subject  for  Easter. "  Here  the  preposition  is  widely 
separated  from  its  object:  this  is  called  "splitting  particles." 
It  is  a  violent  separation  of  things  that  ought  to  be  closely 
united ;  consequently  it  produces  an  unsatisfied  and  dis- 
pleased feeling  in  the  mind.  The  current  of  thought  is 
brought  to  a  stand-still,  and  wc  are  obliged  to  rest  for  a  time 
on  a  little  word  which  carries  no  meaning  with  it  until  it  is 
connected  with  its  proper  object.  A  better  arrangement 
of  the  sentence  is:  "I  have  spoken  to  you  upon  matters 
kindred  to  my  subject  for  Easter,  or  at  any  rate  not  dis- 
tinctly connected  with  it."  In  this  construction  each  prep- 
osition stands  in  close  pro.ximity  to  its  object. 


STYLE.  201 

Rule  IV. — A  sentence  is  enfeebled  by  the  improper  repeti- 
tion of  a  word,  or  by  the  reenrrence  of  nnpleasing  similarity 
of  soimd.     Thus : 

"What  rigJit  have  I  to  zvrite  on  Prudence";  "During 
the  night  preceding  the  waters  were  slowly  receding'' ; 
"The  few  who  regarded  them  in  their  true  light  were  re- 
garded z&  dreamers." 

This  principle  does  not  apply  to  a  repetition  made  for  some 
sound  rhetorical  reason;  on  the  contrary,  such  repetition 
often  adds  great  strength  to  a  sentence.  Thus  :  ' '  He  as- 
pired to  the  highest — above  the  people,  above  the  authori- 
ties, above  the  laws,  above  his  country";  "She  flew  through 
the  brakes  and  over  the  huge  stones,  up — up — up — faster 
than  ever  huntsman  ran  in  to  the  death." 

Ring  out  old  shapes  of  foul  disease ; 

Ring  out  the  narrowing  lust  of  gold ; 

Ring  out  the  thousand  wars  of  old, 
Ring  in  the  thousand  )'ears  of  peace. —  Tennyson. 

l\  Wk — %vork — 7vork  ! 

From  weary  chime  to  chime ; 
/'[  'ark — work — work  — 

As  prisoners  work  for  crime ! — Hood. 

Often  intense  energy  may  be  secured  by  the  omission  of 
words  easily  supplied.  Words  are  sometimes  a  hindrance 
to  the  thought,  less  expressive  even  than  signs  or  gestures. 

The  strongest  effects  are  produced  by  interjections,  which 
condense  entire  sentences  into  syllables.  Thus  the  word 
"  Miscreant!  "  expresses  all  that  could  be  conveyed  by  the 
sentence,  "Thou  art  a  miscreant!"  "A  Daniel  come  to 
judgment!"  is  a  more  energetic  arrangement  than,  "Thou 
art  a  Daniel  come  to  judgment."  "On  to  Richmond!  "  is 
more  forcible  than,   "  Let  us  go  on  to  Richmond." 


202  COMPOsniOX   AND  RPilirORIC. 

Rule  V.  —  Use  specific  words. 

Words  which  denote  individual  things,  have  a  dcfinite- 
ness  of  meaning ;  hence  they  are  more  readily  understood, 
and  the  impression  produced  by  them  is  deeper  than  that 
produced  by  generic  words — words  whose  meaning  is 
broader,  words  which  name  classes  of  objects.  Thus:  "Can 
good  comQ  oi evil?"  is  less  forcible  than,  "Do  men  gather 
grapes  of  thonis  or  figs  of  thistles?"  "If  you  have  tears, 
prepare  to  shed  them  now  "  is  more  effective  than,  "If  you 
have  sympathy,  prepare  to  sJiozv  it  now."  "It  seemed  that 
a  Bonaparte  had  planned  the  battle  "  produces  a  more  vivid 
impression  than,  "It  seemed  that  the  battle  had  been 
planned  by  a  great  viilitary  genius."  To  say,  "He  was  a 
Jjidas  in  heart"  is  to  describe  in  energetic  terms  a  base  and 
treacherous  nature. 

Rule  VI. — In  eases  ofi  contrast,  a  sentence  is  stronger  and 
more  effective,  if  the  cojitrasted  mend)ers  are  constructed  alike. 

"Happiness  is  found  in  the  arm-chair  of  dozing  age,  as 
well  as  in  the  sprightliness  which  belongs  to  the  dance."  Cor- 
rect thus:    "the  spriglitliness  of  the  dance." 

"Prosperity  gains  friends,  but  they  are  tried  by  adver- 
sity." Correct  thus:  "  Prosperity  gains  friends ;  adversity 
tries  them."  "  Hope,  inspiring  \\\q.  heart,  and  Fear,  which 
destroys  faith  in  one's  self,  work  ever  against  each  other." 
Correct  thus:  "Hope,  which  inspires  the  heart,  and  P^ear, 
which  destroys  faith,"  etc.  "I  stood  a  long  time  consid- 
ering many  things  connected  with  this  stately  old  mansion, 
and  to  note  the  perfect  harmony  between  it  and  its  surround- 
ings." Change  to:  "I  stood  a  longtime  considering  many 
things  connected  w  ith  this  stately  old  mansion,  and  noticing 
{or  observing)  the  perfect  harmony  between  it  and  its  sur- 
roundings." 


STYLE.  203 

Rule  VII. — //  often  adds  strength  to  a  sentence  to  use  the 
periodic  form. 

A  periodic  sentence  is  one  in  which  the  complete  sense 
is  suspended  until  the  close. 

A  loose  sentence  is  one  in  which  the  predicate  is  fol- 
lowed by  phrases  or  clauses  that  are  not  necessary  to  the 
completeness  of  the  sense.  It  takes  the  whole  of  a  period 
to  express  a  thought;  there  may  be  many  places  in  a  loose 
sentence,  at  any  of  which  a  thought  has  been  expressed, 
and  a  full  stop  could  be  made. 

Both  the  periodic  and  the  loose  sentence  have  their  ad- 
vantages and  their  disadvantages.  The  periodic  structure 
promotes  energy,  as  it  preserves  the  unity  of  the  sentence 
and  concentrates  its  strength  in  a  single  point,  the  close ; 
but  it  has  an  artificial  appearance  —  the  whole  must  be 
thought  out  before  anything  is  set  down ;  as  the  beginning 
has  reference  to  the  end  and  the  end  recalls  the  beginning, 
all  that  lies  between  looks  back  to  the  beginning  and  for- 
wards to  the  end.  It  is  unfitted  for  some  kinds  of  compo- 
sition, and  its  frequent  recurrence  is  always  disagreeable. 

A  loose  sentence  is  not  necessarily  deficient  in  energy; 
it  begins  without  apparent  consciousness  of  how  it  is  to 
end — the  beginning  has  in  construction  no  dependence  on 
what  follows,  though  what  follows  depends  for  its  construc- 
tion and  its  sense  on  what  precedes  it.  By  a  judicious  choice 
and  arrangement  of  words,  the  writer  may  keep  the  mind 
of  the  reader  in  suspense  even  in  sentences  that  are  not 
grammatically  complete  before  their  close ;  still,  loose  sen- 
tences are  very  liable  to  degenerate  into  feebleness.  The 
proper  management  of  the  loose  sentence  requires  much 
care  and  skill.  Hence  young  and  inexperienced  writers 
should  generally  aim  to  make  their  sentences  periodic. 


204  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

The  two  modes  of  arrangement  may  be  united  in  one 
sentence ;  such  a  sentence  is  a  coniprouiisc  between  the  pe- 
riodic and  the  loose  sentence,  the  point  at  which  the  sense 
is  complete  standing  not  at  the  close,  but  near  it. 

Periodic  sentence. — To  this  knowledge  which  all  men  carry  about 
with  them,  and  to  these  sympathies  in  which,  without  any  other  disci- 
pline than  that  of  our  daily  hfe,  we  are  fitted  to  take  delight,  the  poet 
principally  directs  his  attention. —  \Vordszvo7-th. 

Loose  sentence. — It  was  mercy  that  preserved  the  noblest  of  God's 
creatures  here  below ;  |  he  who  stood  condemned  and  undone  under 
all  the  other  attributes  of  God  was  saved  and  rescued  by  His  mercy ;  | 
that  it  may  be  evident  that  God's  mercy  is  above  all  His  works,  |  and 
above  all  ours,  |  greater  than  the  creation,  and  greater  than  our  sins. 
— Jeremy  Taylor. 

Comprojnise. — While  the  multitude  below  saw  only  the  flat,  sterile 
desert  in  which  they  had  so  long  wandered,  bounded  on  every  side 
by  a  near  horizon,  or  diversified  only  by  some  deceitful  mirage,  he 
was  gazing  from  a  far  higher  stand  on  a  far  lovelier  country,  following 
with  his  eye  the  long  course  of  fertilizing  rivers,  through  ample  past- 
ures, and  under  the  bridges  of  great  capitals,  measuring  the  distances 
of  marts  and  havens,  and  portioning  out  all  those  wealthy  regions 
from  Dan  to  Beersheba. — Macaulay. 

If  the  preliminary  parts  of  a  sentence  are  many,  the  fac- 
ulty of  attention  is  taxed  and  wearied  by  the  effort  to  grasp 
the  thought.  In  such  cases  the  compromise  between  the 
periodic  and  the  loose  sentence  would  be  serviceable,  enab- 
ling the  reader  or  listener  to  lay  down  his  growing  burden 
before  the  close  is  reached. 

Rule  VIII.  —  The  energy  of  a  sentence  is  promoted  by  in- 
versio7i,  interrogation,  and  exclamation. 

These  methods  have  been  treated  under  "  Variety  of  Ex- 
pression";  but  we  give  here  a  few  examples: 

Inversion;  as,  "  Oft  did  the  harvest  to  their  sickle  yield" 
instead  of,   "The  harvest  did  often  yield  to  their  sickle." 


STYLE. 


205 


Other  examples  are : 


Now  begins  the  storm  to  lower. 
Full  swells  the  deep,  pure  fountain  of  young  life. 
Then  shrieked  the  timid,  and  stood  still  the  brave. 
Never  had  spies  been  so  actively  employed  in  detecting  congrega- 
tions. 

Prophet  of  evil  I  ever  am  to  myself 

Many  are  the  roofs  once  thatched  with  reeds. 

Me  he  restored  unto  mine  office,  and  him  he  hanged. 

How  the  truth  came  to  the  prophet  he  himself  knew  not. 

Interrogation : 

Who  planteth  a  vineyard,  and  eateth  not  of  the  fruit  thereof? 

Who  does  not  crave  sympathy? 

Wouldst  thou  have  a  serpent  sting  thee  twice  ? 

Who  ever  knew  truth  put  to  the  worse,  in  a  free  and  open  encounter? 

Is  there  no  balm  in  Gilead?  is  there  no  physician  there? 

Who  can  refute  a  sneer  ? 

Can  the  leopard  change  his  spots  ? 

Canst  thou  draw  out  leviathan  with  a  hook?  or  his  tongue  with 
a  cord  which  thou  lettest  down?  Canst  thou  put  a  hook  into  his 
nose?  or  bore  his  jaw  through  with  a  thorn?  Will  he  make  many 
supplications  unto  thee?  will  he  speak  soft  words  unto  thee?  Will 
he  make  a  covenant  with  thee?  wilt  thou  take  him  for  a  servant 
forever?  Wilt  thou  play  with  him  as  with  a  bird?  or  wilt  thou  bind 
him  for  thy  maidens?  Shall  thy  companions  make  a  banquet  of 
him  ?  shall  they  part  him  among  the  merchants  ?  Canst  thou  fill  his 
skin  with  barbed  irons  ?  or  his  head  with  fish  spears  ? 

Exclamation. — The  occasions  which  justify  the  use  of 
exclamation  arc  comparatively  rare,  and  writers  should  be 
correspondingly  careful  in  resorting  to  it.  The  figure  is 
suitable  only  in  cases  of  real  emotion,  and  when  properly 
used  it  is  of  great  value  and  power.     As  for  example : 

A  horse !  a  horse  I  my  kingdom  for  a  horse ! 

How  prayed  I  that  my  father's  land  might  be  an  heritage  for  thee ! 

I  hear,  I  hear,  with  joy  I  hear! 


206  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

When  one  sits  quite  alone !  Then  one  weeps,  then  one  kneels ! 
— God !  how  the  house  feels ! 

Hark !  a  glad  voice  the  lonely  desert  cheers : 
Prepare  the  way !  a  God,  a  God  appears !  - 

And  yet  was  every  faltering  tongue  of  man. 
Almighty  Father !  silent  in  thy  praise !   ■ 

How  sweet  and  soothing  is  this  hour  of  calm! 
Rule  IX.  —  Climax  promotes  strnigth.  ' 

Climax  (Greek  klimax,  a  ladder),  consists  in  so  arrang- 
ing the  words  of  a  series,  or  the  parts  of  a  sentence,  that 
the  least  impressive  shall  stand  first,  and  the  successive 
words  or  parts  grow  in  strength.  This  order  may  hold 
in  (i)  words,  (2)  phrases,  (3)  clauses,  and  (4)  sentences. 
Paragraphs,  even,  may  stand  in  this  order. 

The  following  passages  are  examples  of  this  kiiTd  of 
construction  : 

I  was  born  an  American ;  I  live  an  American ;  I  shall  die  an  Amer- 
ican. 

A  day,  an  hour,  an  instant,  may  prove  fatal. 

While  stands  the  Coliseum,  Rome  shall  stand; 
When  falls  the  Coliseum,  Rome  shall  fall ; 
And  when  Rome  falls, — the  World. 

Whither  thou  gocst,  I  will  go;  and  where  thou  lodgest,  I  will  lodge: 
thy  people  shall  be  my  people,  and  thy  God  my  God. 

The  poorest  man  may  in  his  cottage  bid  defiance  to  all  the  forces 
of  the  crown.  It  may  be  frail;  its  roof  may  shake;  the  wind  may 
blow  through  it;  the  storms  may  enter,  the  rain  may  enter, — but  the 
King  of  England  can  not  enter!  All  his  forces  dare  not  cross  the 
threshold  of  that  ruined  tenement. 

The  cloud-capped  towers,  the  gorgeous  palaces,  the  solemn  temples, 
the  great  globe  itself,  yea,  all  which  it  inherit,  shall  dissolve,  and,  like 
this  insubstantial  pageant  faded,  leave  not  a  rack  behind. 


STYLE.  207 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  construct  a  sentence  in  the  or- 
der of  climax.  Not  every  subject  admits  of  such  arrange- 
ment, nor  would  it  be  desirable  to  construct  all  our  sen- 
tences, or  even  a  majority  of  them,  on  this  model.  The 
effect  would  be  to  destroy  all  simplicity,  and  to  make  the 
style  stiff  and  pompous.  Yet  an  occasional  climax, 
brought  in  when  the  foregoing  ideas  have  prepared  the 
way  for  it,  has  a  powerful  effect. 

Anti-climax. — The  inversion  of  climacteric  order  gives 
anti- climax.  The  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  the  sen- 
tence is  such  that  the  ideas  suddenly  become  less  digni- 
fied at  the  close.  Anti-climax  is  allowable  in  comic  writ- 
ing-s,  but  it  is  a  fault  in  serious  discourse.     Thus : 

The  Russian  grandees  came  to  court  dropping 

1      f  and  diamonds. —  Climax. 
pearls  \       ^  .  -     .    ,. 

(.  and  vermin. — Anti-ciimax. 

These  two  nations  were  divided  by  mutual 

and  the  bitter  remembrance  of  recent  losses. —  Climax. 


fear    ,        ,  ^    .•    ,• 

and  mountains. — Anti-climax 

A  ludicrous  descent  from  the  elevated  to  the  mean  is 
called  " dat/ios."     Thus: 

■v./  He  lost  his  wife,  his  child,  his  household  goods,  and  his  do^,  at 
one  fell  swoop. 


V 


Go  teach  Eternal  Wisdom  how  to  rule, 
T/u'H  drop  i?itfl  thyself,  and  be  a  fool. 

There  is  some  one — I  see  a  dark  shape — 
At  that  window,  the  hottest  of  all, — 

My  good  woman,  why  don't  you  escape? 
Never  think  o{ your  bonnet  and  shawl. 


1/  A  clergyman,  preaching  to  a  country  congregation,  used  the  fol- 
lowing persuasive  arguments  against  swearing:  "Oh,  my  brethren, 
avoid  this  practice,  for  it  is  a  great  sin,  and,  what  is  more,  it  is 
imgenteel.'' 


208  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE  L. 

D\Ri'.CTlON. — Criticise  and  amend  the  following  : 

1.  Her  chief  is  slain,  and  she  fills  his  fatal  post,  where  death  is 
certain. 

2.  My  ecstatic  joys,  my  deepest,  most  despondent  griefs,  iny  most 
unconquerable  passions,  and  my  indefatigable  powers,  were  my  in- 
alienable friends. 

3.  Sea-port  towns  on  the  coast  are  the  great  marts  for  selling 
produce. 

4.  Is  it  true,  can  it  be  possible,  is  it  not  a  rnistake,  that  we  have 
taken  the  wrong  road  .-* 

5.  It  is  plain  enough,  it  is  quite  evident,  that  the  little  mill  can 
never  keep  a  stand  against  this  mighty  rush  of  waters,  or  resist  them. 

6.  The  ancient  Romans  wore  a  long,  loose,  untrammeled  robe, 
called  a  toga. 

7.  Thought  and  expression  act  and  react  upon  each  other  mu- 
tually. 

8.  I  went  home  full  of  a  great  many  serious  reflections. 

9.  I  do  not  know  what  they  paved  the  street  with. 

10.  He  gives  a  glowing  description  of  his  descent  down  into  the 
mine. 

11.  It  is  a  principle  of  our  religion  that  we  should  not  revenge 
ourselves  on  our  enemies,  nor  take  vengeance  on  our  foes. 

12.  A  severe  and  tyrannical  exercise  of  power  must  become  a 
matter  of  necessary  policy  with  kings  when  their  subjects  are  imbued 
with  such  principles  as  justify  and  authorize  rebellion. 

13.  In  this  plight,  and  with  a  strong  consciousness  of  it,  I  waited 
to  introduce  myself  to,  and  make  my  first  impression  on,  my  for- 
midable aunt. 

14.  The  laughers  will  be  for  those  who  have  most  wit;  the  serious 
part  of  mankind,  for  those  who  have  most  reason  on  their  side. 

15.  There  are  few  things  that  have  not  a  good  side  as  well  as 
that  which  is  bad. 

16.  He  took  the  bundle  from,  and  would  not  return  it  to,  the  child. 

17.  When  will  the  balloon  ascend  up? 

18.  Whence  you  derive  that  idea,  I  will  find  out. 


STYLE.  209 


EXERCISE  LI. 

Direction.  —  Point  out  in  the  following  sentences  the  cases  in  which  rep- 
etition is  emphatic: 

I.  So  many  hours  must  I  tend  my  flock; 
So  many  hours  must  I  take  my  rest; 
So  many  hours  must  I  contemplate; 
So  many  hours  must  I  sport  myself. 

2.  Why,   I  can  smile  the  while,  since  thy  wiles  can  ne'er  de- 
ceive me. 

3.  They  upbraided  him  for  evading  the  truth  and  parading  his 
conceit  in  the  presence  of  their  friends. 

4.  Happy,  happy,  happy  pair! 

None  but  the  brave. 
None  but  the  brave. 
None  but  the  brave  deserves  the  fair. 

5.  No  more  shall  the  meads  be  decked  with  flowers, 
Nor  sweetness  dwell  in  rosy  bowers ; 

Nor  greenest  buds  on  branches  spring, 
Nor  warbling  birds  delight  to  sing. 
Nor  April  violets  paint  the  grove. 

6.  They  sang  of  peace  to  them  that  sang  of  war. 

Direction. —  Make  the  following  sentences  more  forcible,  by  omitting  all 
words  that  the  sense  does  not  require: 

1 .  What  news  have  you  heard  from  Genoa  ? 

2.  May  woe  betide  those  within. 

3.  It  is  base  treachery. 

4.  What  is  the  cause,  then,  sir,  the  cause? 

5.  Rush  ye  on  him,  rush  ye  on  him. 

6.  May  it  please  God  to  bless  you,  sir. 

7.  Venice,  thou  art  the  proud  queen  of  the  waters. 

8.  Who  is  it  that  comes  so  fast  in  the  silence  of  the  night? 

9.  Is  it  that  life  is  so  dear  or  that  peace  is  so  sweet  as  to  be  pur- 
chased at  the  price  of  chains  and  slavery  ? 

10.  Do  not  suffer  yourselves  to  be  betrayed  with  a  kiss. 


2IO 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


EXERCISE  LII. 


Direction.  —  Svibstitute  for  each  of  the  following  generic  words  as  many 
specific  words  as  you  can  think  of: 


1.  Flower. 

2.  Fruit. 

3.  Motion. 

4.  Animal. 

5.  Beast. 

6.  Insect. 

7.  Food. 

8.  Free. 

9.  Vehicle. 


10.  Implement. 

1 1 .  Garment. 

12.  Fowl. 

13.  Destroy. 

14.  Building. 

15.  Color. 

16.  Crime. 

17.  Sound. 

18.  Disease. 


Direction. —  Construct  sentences  containing  the  following  specific  words; 
and  then  exchange  them  for  corresponding  generic  words.  Note  what  you  thus 
lose  in  energy : 

1.  Sparrow. 

2.  Flannel. 

3.  Horse. 

4.  Coat. 

5.  Daisy. 

6.  Wagon. 

7.  Bread. 

8.  Small-pox. 

9.  Oak. 


10. 

Plow. 

1 1. 

Harp. 

12. 

Vulture. 

13- 

Ant. 

14. 

Mocking-bird 

15- 

Green. 

16. 

Thunder. 

17- 

Gun. 

iS. 

Sih-er. 

EXERCISE  LIII. 


Direction.  — Make  the  following  sentences /^/-/W/V.- 

1.  He  came  out  from  the  sheltering  rock,  and  stood  beneath  the 
cave  to  receive  the  Divine  communication. 

2.  I  will  be  open  and  sincere  with  you  before  I  invite  you  into 
my  society  and  friendship. 

3.  The  ministerial  ranks  began  to  waver  as  soon  as  it  was  un- 
derstood that  the  attack  was  directed  against  him  alone,  and  that, 
if  he  were  sacrificed,  his  associates  might  expect  advantageous  and 
honorable  terms. 


STYLE.  2  I  I 

4.  Antonio,  with  calm  resignation,  replied  that  he  had  but  httle 
to  say,  for  that  he  had  prepared  his  mind  for  death. 

5.  I  was  willing  enough  to  intrust  my  son  with  this  commission, 
as  I  had  some  opinion  of  his  prudence. 

6.  The  ships  were  in  extreme  peril;  for  the  river  was  low,  and 
the  only  navigable  channel  ran  very  near  to  the  left  bank,  where 
the  headquarters  of  the  enemy  had  been  fixed. 

7.  I  reflect  with  sorrow  and  astonishment  on  the  little  competi- 
tions, factions,  and  debates  of  mankind,  when  I  see  kings  lying  by 
those  who  deposed  them,  when  I  consider  rival  wits  placed  side  by 
side,  or  the  holy  men  that  divided  the  world  with  their  contests  and 
disputes. 

8.  The  contemplation  of  celestial  things  will  make  a  man  both 
speak  and  think  more  sublimely  and  magnificently,  when  he  de- 
scends to  human  affairs. 

Direction.  —  Make  the  following  sentences  loose: 

1.  Unless  we  look  on  this  world  as  only  a  nursery  for  the  next, 
and  believe  that  the  several  generations  of  rational  creatures,  which 
vise  up  and  disappear  in  such  quick  succession,  here  receive  only 
the  first  rudiments  of  their  existence,  afterward  to  be  transported  into 
a  more  friendly  climate,  where  they  may  spread  and  flourish  to  all 
eternity,  how  can  we  find  in  the  formation  of  man  that  wisdom  which 
shines  through  all  the  works  of  God  ? 

2.  When  he  was  not  under  the  influence  of  some  strange  scruple, 
or  some  domineering  passion,  which  prevented  him  from  boldly  and 
fairly  investigating  a  subject,  he  was  a  wary  and  acute  reasoner. 

3.  When  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary 
for  one  people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connected 
them  with  another,  *  *  *  *  -x-  a  decent  respect  for  the 
opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they  should  declare  the  causes 
which  impel  them  to  the  separation. 

4.  When,  at  length,  Hyder  Ali  found  that  he  had  to  do  with 
men  who  either  would  sign  no  convention,  or  whom  no  treaty  and 
no  signature  could  bind,  and  who  were  the  determined  enemies  of 
human  intercourse  itself,  he  decreed  to  make  the  country  possessed 
by  these  incorrigible  and  predestinated  criminals  a  memorable  ex- 
ample to  mankind. 


212  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 


EXERCISE  LIV. 

Direction. —  Arrange  in  climacteric  order  the  parts  of  these  sentences: 

1.  It  is  good  to  commemorate  patriotic  sentiments,  good  to  honor 
them,  good  to  encourage  them,  good  to  have  them. 

2.  Gentleness  ought  to  diffuse  itself  over  our  whole  behavior,  to 
form  our  address,  and  to  regulate  our  speech. 

3.  Ambition  creates  seditions,  wars,  discords,  hatred,  and  shyness. 

4.  Charity  breathes  long-suffering  to  enemies,  courtesy  to  stran- 
gers, and  habitual  kindness  towards  friends. 

5.  Virtue  supports  in  sickness,  comforts  in  the  hour  of  death, 
strengthens  in  adversity,  and  moderates  in  prosperity. 

6.  Since  man  is  on  his  very  entrance  into  the  world  the  most 
helpless  of  all  creatures ;  since  he  must  at  last  be  laid  down  in  the 
dust  from  which  he  was  taken ;  and  since  he  is  for  a  series  of  years 
entirely  dependent  on  the  protection  of  others;  how  vain  and  absurd 
does  it  appear  that  such  a  being  should  indulge  in  worldly  pride. 

EXERCISE  LV. 

Direction. —  Complete  the  following  sentences  by  adding  suitable  contrasts: 

1.  Pride  is  the  offspring  of  ignorance . 

2.  He  is  young  in  years,  but . 


3.  Silence  your  opponent  with  reason 

4.  The  form  perishes ;  the  matter 


5.  The  desire  of  the  righteous  is  only  good;  but  the  expectation 
of  the  wicked . 

6.  Force  was  resisted  by  force;  valor . 


7.  William  was  the  more  attentive,  but  his  brother 

8.  The  simple  inherit  folly ; . 

9.  In  peace,  children  bury  their  parents;  in  war  — 


10.  Contemporaries  appreciate  the  man  rather  than  the  merit;  but 
posterity . 

11.  Philadelphia  covers  the  larger  extent  of  territory,   but   New 
York . 

12.  An   upright  minister  asks  W'/zr;/ recommends  a  man;  a  corrupt 
minister . 


STYLE.  213 


EXERCISE  LVI. 

Direction. —  Criticise  and  amend  the   following  sentences,  with  reference 
to  unity,  clearness,  and  strength  : 

1.  The  effect  of  the  concluding  verb,  placed  where  it  is,  is  most 
striking. 

2.  On  this  occasion,  the  question  gave  rise  to  much  agitation, 
and  soon  after  absorbed  every  other  consideration. 

3.  After  the  most  straightest  sect  of  our  religion  I  lived  a  Phar- 
isee. 

4.  Thou  found'st  me  poor  at  first  and  keep'st  me  so. 

5.  Rich  or  poor  you  have  always  been  to  me  a  true  friend. 

6.  Owing  to  an  obstacle  on  the  track,  and  the  badness  of  the 
weather,  the  train  was  delayed,  and  as  John  did  not  reach  home  in 
time  to  attend  the  funeral,  they  concluded  to  postpone  it. 

7.  Yet  it  was  natural  for  him  to  conceal  whatever  sadness  he 
might  entertain  on  account  of  the  misfortunes  of  his  friend,  in  the 
brilliant  scenes  of  which  he  was  the  principal  actor. 

8.  It  was  midnight — the  very  hour  at  which  (with  a  punctuality 
few  of  them  have  exhibited  in  the  flesh)  spirits  invariably  revisit 
(what  can  be  the  attraction  in  many  cases  ?)  their  former  abodes. 

9.  Both  mind  and  body  were  patient  under  hardships,  whether 
voluntary  or  under  necessity  endured. 

10.  He  could  only  live  in  agitation  ;  he  could  only  breathe  in  a 
volcanic  atmosphere. 

11.  Mrs.  A.'s  compliments  to  Mrs.  B.,  and  begs  to  say  that  C. 
lived  with  her  a  year  and  found  her  respectable,  steady,  and  honest. 

12.  But  you  will  bear  it  as  you  have  so  many  things. 

13.  No  introduction  has,  nor  in  any  probabihty  ever  will,  authorize 
that  which  common  thinkers  would  call  a  liberty. 

14.  I  am  going  to  yonder  gate  to  receive  further  direction  how  I 
may  get  to  the  place  of  deliverance. 

15.  He  sympathized,  not  with  their  cause,  but  their  fate. 

16.  Upon  which  the  Moor,  seizing  a  bolster,  full  of  rage  and  jeal- 
ousy, smothered  the  unhappy  Desdemona. 

17.  He  knows,  further,  that  the  keeper  of  the  asylum  has  either 
been  deceived  by,  or  is  an  accomplice  of,  these  doctors. 

18.  He  has  carefully  transcribed  his  history. 


214  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

Harmony. — A  sentence  may  be  grammatical,  and  ob- 
serve the  rules  for  clearness,  unity,  and  energy,  without 
pleasing  the  ear  by  its  smoothness  of  sound  or  displaying 
any  adaptation  of  sound  to  the  sense.  Most  sentences  are 
constructed  without  any  thought  as  to  how  they  will  sound. 
In  poetry  and  oratory  we  find  abundant  examples  of  that 
harmonious  combination  of  sounds  and  that  connection  be- 
tween sound  and  sense  which  constitute  the  most  perfect 
melody  known  to  language.  While  prose  has  neither  the 
rhyme  nor  meter  of  poetry,  it  is  susceptible  of  a  melody 
which  every  writer  should  strive  to  attain. 

Harmony,  however,  must  not  be  held  of  more  impor- 
tance than  the  ideas  to  be  presented ;  nor  must  it  be  pur- 
chased at  the  cost  of  clearness  and  force.  It  should  be 
the  last  element  of  style  to  engage  our  attention. 

To  promote  the  harmony  of  a  sentence,  be  guided  by  the 
following  considerations : 

Rule  I. — Avoid  using  luoj'ds  that  arc  hard  to  pronounce. 

For  example,  we  should  avoid  such  words  as  contain  a 
greater  number  of  consonants,  or  a  succession  of  short,  un' 
accented  syllables,  or  such  as  occasion  a  clash  of  vowels. 
Opposed  to  all  such  are  (i)  words  ending  in  soft  consonants 
or  open  vowels;  as,  ever,  alive,  dream;  (2)  words  containing 
liquids;  as,  roaming,  melloiv,  noontide,  loving;  (3)  polysylla- 
bles with  the  accent  near  the  end ;  as,  sondrous,  locouw'tion, 
rcgald incut ;  (4)  words  in  which  vowels  and  consonants  arc 
blended;  as,  humility,  remedy,  demeanor.  These  four  classes 
of  words  contribute  much  to  the  melody  of  composition. 

Rule  II. — Avoid  condnuatious  of  letters  of  one  kind. 

Among  such  coxnh'wxAixons  iwq  strcngthenedst,  periphrasis, 
farriering.     Long  compound  words  are  generalh'  disagree- 


STYLE.  215 

able ;  as,  mnvholcsomencss,  vegetarianism.  Long  words  hav- 
ing the  accent  near  the  beginning,  and  words  with  a  suc- 
cession of  unaccented  syllables,  are  difficult  to  pronounce, 
and,  accordingly,  unpleasant  to  the  ear;  as,  Jios'pitably, 
derog' atorily ,  pe/einptorilj,  ar' bitrarily . 

Rule  III. — Avoid  all  disagreeable  eondnnations  of  zvords. 

Words  which  by  themselves  are  sufficiently  euphonious, 
sometimes  displease  the  ear  on  account  of  their  position 
with  regard  to  other  words  in  the  sentence ;  as,  ' '  I  can  can- 
didly say  ";  " The  zvonien  zvofidly  and  zvillfully  ";  "I  confess 
with  humility  my  inability'' ;  ''Stately  ships  sail  on  the  stormy 
sea  ";  ' '  Brozvn  berries. " 

Rule  IV.  —  Tlie  harmony  of  a  sentence  is  promoted  by 
arranging  the  zvords  in  such  a  manner  that  the  accents  come 
at  conveuioit  and  somezvJiat  measured  intervals. 

It  is  this  arrangement  of  words  with  reference  to  accent 
which  makes  some  prose  writings  so  much  easier  to  read  than 
others.  We  find  it,  more  or  less,  in  all  well  written  prose. 
The  following  are  examples : 

The  plants  of  the  garden,  the  animals  of  the  wood,  the  minerals  of 
the  earth,  the  meteors- of  the  sky,  must  all  concur  to  store  his  mind 
with  inexhaustible  variety ;  for  every  idea  is  useful  for  the  enforcement 
or  decoration  of  moral  or  religious  truth  ;  and  he  who  knows  most  will 
have  most  power  of  diversifying  his  scenes,  andof  gratifying  his  reader 
with  remote  allusions  and  unexpected  instructions. — Johnson. 

What  silence,  too,  came  with  the  snow,  and  what  seclusion  !  Every 
sound  was  muffled,  every  noise  changed  to  something  soft  and  mu- 
sical. No  more  tramping  hoofs,  no  more  rattling  wheels  !  Only  the 
chiming  sleigh-bells,  beating  as  swift  and  merrily  as  the  hearts  of  the 
children. — Longfellow.* 


■■■"  Note. — The  pupil  is  cautioned  against  continuing  this  style  through  several 
periods  in  succession.     It  would-be  monotonous  and  wearisome. 


"2  1 6  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Rule  V. — Attend  to  the  cadence  of  sentences. 

By  cadence  is  meant  the  falling  of  the  voice  before  coming 
to  a  full  stop.  The  cadence  at  the  close  of  a  sentence  adds 
much  to  the  harmony.  The  words  and  clauses  should, 
therefore,  be  so  placed  that  something  pleasing  and  sonorous 
may  be  found  at  the  end. 

As  regards  single  words,  the  most  musical  cadences  are 
made  on  words  of  four  syllables,  accented  on  the  first  and 
third ;  as,  contcjfipla'tion,  providen'tial.  An  agreeable  cadence 
is  made  by  words  of  three  syllables,  accented  on  the  second ; 
as,  dejec'tion,  abstrac' tiofi.  Monosyllables  or  a  series  of  un- 
accented syllables  make  a  disagreeable  cadence ;  hence  a 
sentence,  unless  wholly  unavoidable,  should  not  close  with 
any  small  word,  but  with  the  longest  words  and  most  sono- 
rous members.  It  is  unadvisable,  however,  to  close  every 
sentence  with  a  particular  kind  of  word,  or  to  sacrifice  an 
appropriate  word  for  one  less  expressive,  simply  to  obtain 
a  more  musical  cadence. 

Rule  VI.  —  The  Jiaruiony  of  a  sentence  is  promoted  by 
adapting  the  sound  to  the  sense. 

Numerous  w'ords  in  our  language,  such  as  //;//;/,  hiss, 
ivJiiz,  clash,  crash,  rush,  roar,  patter,  rattle,  cracklijig,  wJiis- 
tling,  readily  suggest  their  meaning  by  their  sound.  By  the 
use  of  such  words,  a  writer  may  indicate  many  varieties  of 
motion,  and  may  even  imitate  particular  noises,  as  when  we 
speak  of  the  buz::  of  the  fly,  the  xvhistling  of  the  wind,  the 
creaking  of  the  door.  Our  feelings,  whether  grave  or  stern, 
serious  or  impetuous,  gentle  or  bold,  loving  or  hateful,  are 
more  accurately  conveyed  if  the  words  chosen  be  "an  echo 
to  the  sense."     The  felling  of  timber  is  thus  described: 

Deep-echoing  groan  the  thickets  brown. 

Then  rustling,  crackling,  crashing,  thunder  down. 


STYLE.  2 1 7 

The  hidden  harmony  that  lies  in  our  short  Saxon  words 
is  revealed  in  the  following  lines: 

Our  harsh  northern  whistling,  griintijig,  guttural, 

Which  we  are  obHged  to  hiss,  and  spit,  and  sputter  all. — Byron. 

Exquisite  tenderness  is  breathed  by  the  soft  and  flowing 
words  in  the  following  lines: 

And  neither  the  angels  in  heaven  above, 
Nor  the  demons  down  under  the  sea, 

Can  ever  dissever  my  soul  from  the  soul 
Of  the  beautiful  Annabel  Lee. — Poe. 


EXERCISE  LVII. 

Direction. —  Show  where  harmony  is  violated  in  the  following,  and  recast 
the  sentences  so  as  to  make  them  harmonious: 

1.  Her  actions  were  such  as  to  make  her  a  genuine  heroine. 

2.  We  should  not  speak  derogatorily  of  the  work  of  others. 

3.  The  proposition  is  now  stated  in  an  entirely  different  form. 

4.  Arrangements  have  been  made  for  forwarding  forty  cars  of 
lumber. 

5.  Shamefacedness  is  by  some  considered  a  virtue. 

6.  Energy,  industry,  and  temperance  recommend  many. 

7.  Shylock  can  be  persuaded  to  accept  of  nothing  except  the  for- 
feit. 

8.  The  cottage  stood  by  a  beautiful  placid  brook. 

9.  He  was  first  thoroughly  subjugated,  and  then  thoroughly  made 
to  feel  that  his  position  was  wholly  insubordinate. 

10.  The  party  was  so  large  that  only  a  part  could  be  accommodated. 

11.  'Twas  thou  that  soothedst  the  rough,  rugged  bed  of  pain. 

12.  He  exemplified  the  principal  appHcations  of  the  principle  by 
numerous  examples. 

13.  The  river,  again  gaining  strength,  flows  more  swiftly. 

14.  Every  nature,  you  perceive,  is  either  too  excellent  to  want  it, 
or  too  base  to  be  capable  of  it. 

15.  Up  the  lofty  hill  he  raises  a  large,  round  stone. 

16.  It  is  a  mystery  which  we  firmly  believe  the  truth  of. 

Rhet.— 19. 


CHAPTER   IX. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 


In  the  expression  of  thought  we  hav^  seen  that  it  is  the 
business  of  the  writer  or  speaker,  first,  to  obtain  the  words 
needed,  and  then  to  arrange  them  into  completed  sentences. 
The  selection,  however,  of  accurate  words,  and  the  correct 
placing  of  these  words  in  sentences,  give  us  nothing  more 
than  the  expression  of  the  thought  in  the  simplest  manner 
possible.  To  write  elegantly  and  efiqctively,  something  fur- 
ther must  be  considered.  We  should  not  content  ourselves 
with  the  mere  expression  of  our  meaning,  but  we  should 
express  it  in  such  forms  as  will  make  it  more  agreeable  and 
attractive ;  we  must  appeal  to  the  taste  and  imagination,  as 
well  as  to  the  understanding.  Among  the  means  of  render- 
ing the  style  of  any  composition  forcible  and  graceful,  none 
are  more  conspicuous  than  those  known  as  Figures. 

A  Figure  of  Speech,  or  of  Rhetoric,  is  an  intentional 
deviation  from  the  ordinary  application  of  words,  with  a 
view  to  making  the  meaning  more  effective.  Rhetorical 
figures,  in  general,  may  be  described  as  forms  of  language 
prompted  either  by  the  imagination  or  by  the  passions. 
Thus:  "Calamity  is  man's  true  toncJi-stonc,'"  is  a  figurative, 
forcible,  and  graceful  way  of  saying,  "It  is  only  amid  great 
misfortunes  that  man  shows  his  real  character." 

If  we  say,  ' '  She  becomes  prudent  and  sagacious, "  we  use 
the  plain,  ordinary  way  of  stating  a  fact;  but  if  we  say, 
"  How  prudent  and  sagacious  she  becomes!  "  the  statement 

(2t8) 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  2lg 

is  changed  to  an  exclamation  of  surprise.  It  is,  therefore, 
a  form  of  speech  different  from  the  ordinary  mode  of  ex- 
pression, yet  a  form  both  forcible  and  natural. 

Figures  are  natural  and  necessary ;  they  should  not 
be  considered  as  mere  ornaments,  which  render  a  discourse 
more  pleasing,  and  which  may  be  used  or  rejected  at  pleas- 
ure. Instead  of  being  inventions  of  art,  they  are  the  nat- 
ural and,  therefore,  the  universal  forms,  in  which  excited 
imagination  and  passion  manifest  themselves.  The  young 
and  the  old,  the  barbarous  and  the  civilized,  all  employ 
them  unconsciously.  Excited  feeling  manifests  itself  in  the 
movements  of  the  body;  much  more  will  it  leave  its  im- 
press on  language.  For  a  person  under  great  excitement 
to  express  the  thoughts  that  agitate  him  in  the  ordinary, 
logical  forms,  would  be  as  unnatural  as  for  one  whose  mind 
is  perfectly  calm  to  employ  the  language  of  passion.  Fig- 
ures also  express  that  which  is  abstract,  difficult,  or  g^eneral, 
more  clearly  than  a  literal  statement  could  do.  Hence,  fig- 
ures increase  the  strength  and  beauty  of  style  (i)  by  enrich- 
ing the  language,  (2)  by  heightening  the  expression  of  emotion, 
(3)  ^y  S^'''-'^^^S  clearness  to  abstract  ideas. 

The  ancients  observed  carefully  the  distinction  between 
Figures  and  Tropes,  but  modern  writers  use  the  one  term. 
Figure  to  cover  the  whole  subject,  whether  the  deviation 
be  in  the  form  of  the  sentence  or  in  the  meaning  of  a 
particular  word.  Tropes  (Greek  trope,  turning,^  are  single 
words  used  figuratively.  The  figures  called  synecdoche, 
metonymy,  and  metaphor  are  tropes. 

The  most  important  figures  are  Simile,  Metaphor,  Per^ 
sonification.  Allegory,  Synecdoche,  Metonymy,  Apostro- 
phe.  Vision,  Interrogation,  Exclamation,  Repetition,  Climax, 
Antithesis,  Epigram,  Irony,  Hyperbole. 


230 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


Figures  of  Rhetoric  have  been  variously  classified,  but 
the  numerous  and  complicated  classifications  are  useless  to 
the  learner.  Figures  accomplish  a  twofold  purpose:  (i) 
they  reproduce  ideas  with  something  of  the  fullness  and 
vividness  of  objects  of  sense ;  (2)  they  give  emphasis  to  the 
thoughts  which  the  writer  wishes  to  impress  on  his  hearers. 
Some  figures  are  better  adapted  to  the  first  of  these  pur- 
poses, others  to  the  second.  We  may,  therefore,  divide 
them  into  two  main  classes:  (i)  Figures  of  Intuition.  (2) 
Figures  of  Emphasis. 

The  former  present  an  idea  to  the  imagination  in  a  sen- 
sible form  ;  the  latter  present  no  picture  to  the  imagination, 
but  emphasize  some  thought.  These  two  divisions  would 
separate  figures  of  speech  thus : 


FIGURES  OF   INTUITION. 


Simile. 


Metaphor. 
Personification. 
Allegory. 
Synecdoche. 
*  Metonymy. 
Apostrophe. 
Vision. 


FIGURES  OF  EMPHASIS. 

Interrogation. 
'  Exclamation. 

*  Repetition. 

*  Climax.. 

'  Antithesis. 

*  Epigram. 

*  Irony. 
"'Hyperbole. 


Simile. 

Simile,  or  Comparison,  consists  in  formally  likening 
one  thing  to  another  that  in  its  nature  is  essentially  differ- 
ent, but  which  it  resembles  in  some  properties.  This  fig- 
ure is  often  as  necessary  to  the  exhibition  of  the  thought, 
as  it  is  ornamental  to  the  language  by  which  that  thought 
is  conveyed.  The  comparison  is  oftenest  denoted  by  the 
word  like,  but  as,  so,  just  as,  similar  to,  and  many  more 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  221 

expressions,  may  be  used  for  the  purpose ;  and  sometimes 
the  formal  term  of  comparison  may  be  omitted.  Note  the 
following  simile  with  the  formal  word  of  comparison : 

"At  first,  //Z'i'  thunder's  distant  tone, 
The  rattHng  din  came  rolling  on." 

Without  the  comparing  word:  "Too  much  indulgence 
does  not  strengthen  the  mind  of  the  young;  plants  raised 
with  tenderness  are  seldom  strong." 

Causes. — A  simile  does  not  always  state  a  direct  resem- 
blance between  objects.  Sometimes  the  resemblance  is 
between  causes;  as, 

"I  scarcely  understand  my  own  intent; 
But  silkworm-like,  so  long  within  have  wrought, 
That  I  am  lost  in  my  own  web  of  thought." 

Effects. — Sometimes  the  resemblance  is  one  of  effects; 
as,  "Often,  like  the  evening  sun,  comes  the  memory  of 
former  times  on  my  soul." 

Relations. — Sometimes  the  resemblance  is  one  of  rela- 
tions ;  as,  * '  Faith  is  to  despair  as  the  stars  to  the  blackness 
of  night ";  ' '  Reason  is  to  faith  as  the  eye  to  the  telescope. " 

Mere  likeness  does  not  of  itself  constitute  a  simile.  When 
objects  are  compared  in  respect  of  quantity  or  degree,  or  to 
see  how  they  differ,  there  is  no  simile.  If  we  should  com- 
pare one  town  to  another  town,  one  tree  to  another  tree, 
one  statesman  to  another  statesman,  Hannibal  to  Alexander, 
Longfellow  to  Tennyson,  there  would  be  no  simile.  It  is 
only  when  the  objects  compared  are  of  a  different  kind,  and 
the  comparison  traces  iuterual  rcscuiblancc,  that  the  com- 
parison becomes  a  figure  of  similitude. 

In  the  use  of  similes  the  following  rules  should  be  ob- 
served :         . 


222  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

Rule  I.  —  TJic  objects  compared  should  not  have  too  close 
and  obviojis  a  irseniblance  to  each  other. 

Rule  II.  —  Objects  in  zi.'hich  the  likeness  is  too  faint  and 
remote  should  not  be  compared. 

Rule  III.  —  Objects  should  not  be  compa?'ed  to  other  objects 
with  zvhich  ordinary  readers  are  unacquainted. 

Rule  IV. —  I)i  describing  sublinu^  objects  zve  shoidd  not 
drazo  our  comparisons  from  what  is  mean  or  lozv ;  nor  should 
zve  associate  what  is  trivial  with  grand  and  elevated  objects. 

Such  comparisons  may  be  proper  in  mock-heroic  or  bur- 
lesque. In  such  writings  the  author  aims  to  bring  an  object 
into  ridicule  by  associating  it  with  something  ridiculous; 
but  in  serious  discourse  the  aim  is  just  the  opposite,  hence 
the  comparisons  should  be  of  a  pleasing  and  elevating  char- 
acter. 

Rule  V. —  JJVien  stro)ig  passion  is  to  be  expressed,  com- 
parisons should  be  avoided. 

EXERCISE   LVIII. 

Direction.  —  Point  out  the  similes  in  the  following  sentences,  and  show  the 
nature  of  resemblance  between  the  objects  compared  : 

1.  Cowards,  whose  hearts  arc  all  as  false  as  stairs  of  sand. 

2.  Her  skin  is  as  smooth  as  monumental  alabaster. 

3.  This  morning,  like  the  spirit  of  a  youth  that  means  to  be  of 
note,  begins  betimes. 

4.  Kings  are  like  stars — they  rise  and  set. 

5.  States,  as  great  engines,  move  slowly. 

6.  Her  face  is  like  the  milky  way  in  the  sky,-a  meeting  of  gentle 
lights  without  a  name. 

7.  Glories,  like  glow-worms,  afar  off  shine  bright;  but  looked  to 
near,  have  neither  heat  nor  light. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  223 

8.  Out  of  the  earth  a  huge  fabric  rose,  Uke  an  exhalation. 
g.  Woe  succeeds  woe ;  as  wave,  a  wave. 

10.  Curses,  hke  chickens,  come  home  to  roost. 

11.  So  mayst  thou  Uve,  till  hke  ripe  fruit  thou  drop  into  thy  moth- 
er's lap. 

12.  This  is  the  arsenal ;  from  floor  to  ceiling,  hke  a  huge  organ  rise 
the  Ijurnished  arms. 

13.  I  see  you  stand  like  greyhounds  in  the  slips,  straining  upon 
the  start. 

14.  Our  hopes,  like  towering  falcons,  aim  at  objects  in  an  airy  height. 

15.  His  words  like  so  many  nimble  and  airy  servitors,  trip  about 
him  at  command. 

16.  Satire  should,  like  a  polished  razor  keen. 

Wound  with  a  touch  that's  scarcely  felt  or  seen. 

17.  Books,  hke  proverbs,  receive  their  chief  value  from  the  stamp 
and  esteem  of  ages  through  which  they  have  passed. 

18.  The  vulgar  intellectual  palate  thiilks  nothing  good  that  does' 
not  go  off  with  a  pop  like  a  champagne  cork. 

19.  A  false  friend  and  a  shadow  attend  only  when  the  sun  shines. 

Direction.  — Find  apt  resemblances,  and  complete  the  comparisons  here 
begun : 

1.  Fortune  is  fickle . 

2.  Man's  life  fleeth . 


3.  An  evil  conscience  is  like . 

4.  The  cultivation  of  the  mind . 

5.  Thy  tears  must  flow . 

6.  A  sad  tale is  best  for  winter. 

7.  Cunning  leads  to  knavery . 

8.  The  front  of  the  English  army  disappeared . 

9.  The  cuirassiers  hurled  themselves  upon  the  English  squares . 

10.  Their  lives  ghde  on . 

11.  These  temples  grew . 

12.  Good  counsel  rejected  returns  to  enrich  the  giver's  bosom . 

13.  And  darkness  and  doubt  are  now  flying  away . 

14.  Gentle  means  sometimes  accomplish  what  harsh  measures  can 
not . 

1  5.  This  water  is  as  pure . 


224  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Direction.  —  Form  similes  by  comparing  the  following  pairs  of  ohjects: 

1.  Anger  and  a  cloud.  5.  Mercy  and  rain. 

2.  Life  and  a  battle.  6.  Food  and  b6oks. 

3.  Influence  and  dew.  7.  Hope  and  a  rainbow. 

4.  Genius  and  lightning.  8.  Wisdom  and  an  owl. 

9.  A  man  unstable  in  his  ways  and  water. 

10.  Grateful  persons  and  fertile  fields. 

11.  Laughter  and  a  rippling  brook. 

12.  Cold  waters  and  good  news. 


Metaphor. 

Metaphor  is  a  figure  of  speech  founded  upon  resem- 
blance. It  is  often  called  an  abridsfed  simile.  It  asrrecs 
with  the  simile  in  being  founded  upon  resemblance,  but 
differs  from  it  in  structure.  In  the  simile  one  object  is  said 
to  resemble  another  ;  and,  generally,  some  sign  of  compar- 
ison {as,  liki\  etc.)  stands  between  them.  In  the  metaphor, 
an  object  is  spoken  of  as  if  it  were  another,  and  no  sign  of 
comparison  is  used.  Thus:  "Man  is  as  the  flower  of  the 
field  "  is  a  simile.  ' '  Man  is  a  flower  of  the  field  "  expresses 
the  same  thought  by  a  metaphor.  ' 

The  metaphor  is  briefer  than  the  simile ;  it  leaves  more 
to  the  reader  or  hearer  to  detect,  and  stimulates  him  to  the 
detection.  As  it  results  from  a  more  intensely  excited  im- 
agination, so  it  conveys  a  more  forcible  conception.  It 
often  possesses  more  beauty  than  the  simile,  and  more 
nearly  resembles  a  picture  ;  hence  the  use  of  the  metaphor 
is  sometimes  called  "word-painting." 

The  rules  which  have  been  given  for  the  simile  apply  in 
a  measure  to  the  metaphor,  yet  for  a  correct  use  of  the 
metaphor  additional  aid  is  needed.  The  rules  which  more 
particularl}'  limit  its  use  are  the  foll(n\ing: 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 


225 


Rule  I. — MctapJiorical  and  plain  language  should  not  be 
nsed  in  the  same  sentence. 

When  a  metaphor  has  been  introduced  into  a  sentence, 
all  parts  of  the  sentence  should  be  made  to  conform  to  the 
figure  thus  introduced;  if  part  of  it  must  be  understood 
metaphorically,  and  part  literally,  a  disagreeable  confusion 
is  produced.  Thus:  "Trothal  went  forth  with  the  stream 
of  his  people,  but  they  met  a  rock ;  for  Fingal  stood  un- 
moved; broken  they  rolled  back  from  his  side;  nor  did 
they  jvll  in  safety ;  the  spear  of  the  king  pursued  their  fight." 
The  literal  meaning  is  improperly  mixed  with  the  meta- 
phorical ;  first  they  are  zuaves  that  roll ;  and  then  they  are 
presented  to  us  as  nu^n  that  may  be  wounded  with  a  spear. 

Rule  II.  —  Two  different  metapJiors  should  not  be  used  in 
the  same  sentence  and  in  reference  to  the  same  subject. 

This  is  what  is  called  "mixed  metaphor,"  and  is  indeed 
one  of  the  grossest  abuses  of  this  figure.  Such  is  the  ex- 
pression, "His  tongue  grappled  with  3.  food  of  words." 
This  makes  a  most  unnatural  medley.  Another  example 
is,  "His  thoughts  soared  up  from  earth  likeyf/r  and  wijiged 
ihtxY  fight  to  distant  stars." 

Rule  III. — Jlfetaphors  even  on  the  sanw  subject  should  not 
be  erozuded  together  in  rapid  succession. 

Crowding  metaphors  has  a  confusing  effect  upon  the 
mind.  Figures,  whether  for  ornament  or  for  illustration, 
to  have  their  proper  effect,  must  be  used  with  moderation. 

Rule  IV. — Metaphors  should  not  be  too  far  pursued. 

This  is  called  "straining  the  metaphor,"  and  is  a  sure 
means  of  destroying  the  dignity  of  the  figure. 


226  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

If  the  resemblance  on  which  the  figure  is  founded  be 
long  dwelt  upon,  and  carried  into  all  its  minute  circum- 
stances, we  tire  the  reader,  who  soon  grows  weary  of  this 
play  of  fancy.      We  also  render  our  discourse  obscure. 

EXERCISE  LIX. 

Direction. —  Point  out  the  metaphors  in  these  sentences,  and  change  them 
to  plain  language : 

1.  The  web  of  our  life  is  of  mingled  yarn   good  and  ill  together. 

2.  Fame  is  a  plant  that  grows  on  soil  immortal. 

3.  Confidence  is  a  plant  of  slow  growth  in  an  aged  bosom. 

4.  Our  doubts  are  traitors,  and   make  us  lose  the  good  we  oft 
might  win  by  fearing  to  attempt. 

1^$'.  A  good  book  is  the  precious  life-blood  of  a  master  spirit. 

6.  They  stemmed  the  torrent  of  a  downward  age. 

7.  This  is  the  porcelain  clay  of  human  kind. 

8.  His  tongue  dropped  manna. 

9.  Moderation  is  the  silken  string  running  through  the  pearl  chain 
of  all  virtues. 

l_^io.  'Tis  slander,  whose  edge  is  sharper  than  the  sword. 

11.  He  wears  the  rose  of  youth  upoh  him. 

12.  No  hinge  nor  loop  to  hang  a  doubt  on. 

13.  You  shall  see  tliem  on  a  quarto  page,  where  a  neat  riv'ulet  of 
text  shall  meander  through  a  meadow  of  margin. 

14.  The  leaves  of  memory  seemed  to  make  a  mournful  rustling  in 
the  dark. 

1 5.  There  stood  a  brotherhood  of  venerable  trees. 

16.  Though  inland  far  we  be, 

Our  Souls  have  sight  of  that  immortal  sea 
Which  brought  us  hither. 

17.  And  when  the  stream 

Which  overflowed  the  soul  was  passed  away, 
A  consciousness  remained  that  it  had  left, 
Deposited  upon  the  silent  shore  of  memory, 
Images,  and  precious  thoughts  tliat  shall  not  die, 
And  can  not  be  destroyed. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  22/ 

1 8.  Dwell  I  but  in  the  suburbs  of  your  good  pleasure? 

19.  The  valiant  never  taste  of  death  but  once. 

20.  He  baits  his  hook  for  subscribers. 


Direction. — -Recast  these  sentences,  using  metaphors  instead  of  plain  Ian- 
jiiage : 

1.  They  write  for  wealth,  not  fame. 

2.  We  are  often  deceived  by  appearances. 

3.  Forsake  not  your  friends. 

4.  You  have  many  advantages. 

5.  The  rulers  of  great  monarchies  have  not  always  been  wise  men. 

6.  Washington  was  cautious. 

7.  We  have  no  money. 

8.  We  often  tremble  when  there  is  no  cause  for  alarm. 

9.  One  is  injured  by  evil  associates. 
10.  Fabius  was  cunning. 


EXERCISE  LX. 

Direction. —  Correct  these  examples  of  mixed  metaphor,  by  (i)  changing 
the  first  part  to  agree  with  what  follows,  and  (2)  the  last  part  to  agree  with  what 
precedes : 

1.  The  chariot  of  day/tvr.?  over  the  mountain-tops. 

2.  He  is  sivainped  in  the  meshes  of  his  argument. 

3.  There  is  not  a  single  view  of  human  nature  which  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  extinguish  the  seeds  of  pride. 

4.  When  the  tongue  goes  upon  stitts,  reason  spreads  but  half  her 
sails. 

5.  This  world,  with  all  its  trials,  is  X\\&  furnace  through  which  the 
soul  must  pass  and  be  developed  before  it  is  ripe  for  the  next  world. 

6.  We  are  constantly  called  upon  to  observe  how  the  noxious  pas- 
sions, which  spring  up  in  the  heart  like  lu.eeds  in  a  neglected  garden, 
are  dissipated  by  the  light  of  truth. 

7.  i:\i&  germ,  the  dawn  of  a  new  vein  in  literature,  lies  there. 

8.  We  must  keep  the  ball  rolling  \\\\y\\  it  becomes  a  thorn  in  the 
side  of  Congress. 


228  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

9.  A  torreiit  of  superstition  consumed  the  land. 

10.  The  very  recognition  of  these  by  the  jurisprudence  of  a  nation 
is  a  mortal  tuoiend  to  the  keystone  upon  which  the  whole  arch  of  mor- 
ality reposes. 

11.  O  Independence  Day,  thou  cJioriis  of  the  ages,  we  hail  thy 
glim})iering<\  'mid  the  cataracts  of  time. 

Direction.  —  Bring  into  the  class  examples  of  correct  metaphor,  a  part  of 
them  gleaned  from  your  reading  and  a  part  of  them  your  own  coining. 


Personification. 

Personification  is  a  figure  of  language  which  represents 
the  lower  animals  and  inanimate  objects  as  endowed  with 
powers  of  being  above  their  own.  The  figure  is  of  three 
grades:  (i)  that  in  which  inanimate  objects  are  raised  to 
the  rank  of  brutes,  (2)  that  in  which  brutes  are  raised  to 
the  rank  of  man,  and  (3)  that  in  which  inanimate  objects 
are  raised  to  tlie  rank  of  man. 

The  first  of  these  grades, — that  of  endowing  inanimate 
objects  with  life,  —  is  the  most  common  form  of  personifi- 
cation, but  it  is  the  least  forcible.  The  second  grade  is 
used  less  frequently  than  either  of  the  others.  The  third 
grade,  —  that  in  which  things  are  raised  farthest,  —  is  the 
most  forcible.  The  notion  of  the  resemblance  of  the  thing 
personified  to  a  person  is  produced  by  an  excited  imagina- 
tion ;  hence,  this  figure  is  appropriate  only  as  the  expres- 
sion of  strong  emotion.  The  higher  forms  of  personifica- 
tion can  be  admitted  only  into  the  most  animated  prose; 
they  are  employed  much  more  freely  in  poetry.  The  per- 
sonification of  abstract  qualities  is  frequent  even  in  prose, 
the  object  of  which  is  merely  to  instruct. 

It  is  well  to  note  that  while  all  personifications  arc  meta- 
phors, not  all  metaphors  are  personifications. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 


EXERCISE  LXI. 


229 


Direction. —  Point  out  the  personification  in  these  sentences,  and  give  the 
grade  to  which  it  belongs;  express  the  ideas  in  plain  language: 

I.  One  woe  doth  tread  upon  another's  heel,  so  fast  they  follow. 

2.  Religion,  blushing,  veils  her  sacred  fires, 
And  unawares  Morality  expires. 

3.  This  fell  sergeant,  Death,  is  strict  in  his  arrest. 
,     A,  The  morn,  in  russet  mantle  clad,  walks  o'er  the  dew  of  yon 
Kigh  eastern  hill. 

5."The  conscious  water  saw  its  Lord,  and  blushed. 

6.  The  lowering  element  scowls  o'er  the  darkened  landscape. 

7.  At  whose  sight  all  the  stars  hide  their  diminished  heads. 

8.  Over  them,  triumphant  Death  shook  his  dart. 

9.  Virtue  could  see  to  do  what  virtue  would  by  her  own  radiant 
light,  though  sun  and  moon  were  in  the  flat  sea  sunk. 

,^J2.  The  Pyramids,  doting  with  age,  have  forgotten  the  names  of 
uieir  founders. 

11.  For  Truth  hath  such  a  face  and  such  a  mien,  as  to  be  loved 
needs  only  to  be  seen. 

12.  Beauty  calls,  and  glory  shows  the  way,)^ 

13.  Night,  sable  goddess,  now  stretches  forth  her  leaden  scepter 
o'er  a  slumbering  world. 

~'  14.  Alas!  it  is  not  till  Time,  with  reckless  hand,  has  torn  out  half 
the  leaves  from  the  Book  of  Human  Life,  to  light  the  fires  of  passion 
with,  from  day  to  day,  that  uTan  begins  to  see  that  the  leaves  which 
remain  are  few  in  number. 

15.  Earth  proudly  wears  the  Parthenon  as  the  best  gem  upon  her 
zone. 

16.  Every  gift  of  noble  origin  is  breathed  upon  by  Hope's  perpet- 
ual breath. 

17.  Stern  Winter  loves  a  dirge-like  sound. 
l^,.>i^.  The  Waves  to  sleep  had  gone. 

19.  In  winter  when  the  dismal  rain 
Came  down  in  slanting  lines, 
And  Wind,  that  grand  old  harper,  smote 
His  thunder-harp  of  pines. 


230  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

20.  O  mountains,  rivers,  rocks,  and  savage  herds, 
To  you  I  speak !  to  you  alone  I  now 

Must  breathe  my  sorrows  ! 

21.  With  other  ministrations,  thou,  O  Nature, 
Healest  thy  wandering  and  distempered  child. 

22.  'ThereMs  no  malice  in  this  burning  coal ; 

The  breath  of  heaven  hath  blown  its  spirit  out, 
And  strowed  repentant  ashes  on  his  head. 

Direction. —  Bring  to  the  class  examples  of  personification.     Let  them  ilhis- 
trate  the  three  grades  of  this  figure. 


Allegory. 

Allegory  is  a  form  of  expression  in  which  the  words  are 
.symboHcal  of  something.  The  allegory  is  a  continued  met- 
aphor or  a  narrative  representing  objects  and  events  that 
are  intended  to  be  symbolical  of  other  objects  and  events 
having  usually  a  moral  or  spiritual  character. 

Allegory,  Metaphor,  and  Simile  are  all  founded  in  re- 
semblance, there  being  in  each  case  two  subjects  having 
certain  points  of  likeness.  In  the  simile,  this  resemblance 
is  expressed  in  form;  as,  "Israel  is  like  a  vineyard  in  a 
very  fruitful  hill."  In  metaphor  the  sign  of  comparison  is 
dropped;  as,  "Israel  is  a  vineyard  in  a  very  fruitful  hill." 
In  allegory,  the  principal  subject  and  the  formal  comparison 
are  both  dropped ;  the  secondary  subject  is  described,  leav- 
ing the  application  entirely  to  the  imagination  of  the  reader, 
but  so  obviously  that  he  can  not  miss  it;  as, 

"My  well  beloved  hath  a  vineyard  in  a  very  fniilful  hill:  and  he 
fenced  it,  and  gathered  out  the  stones  thereof,  and  planted  it  with  the 
choicest  vine,  and  built  a  tower  in  the  midst  of  it,  and  also  made  a 
winepress  therein  :  and  he  looked  tliat  it  should  bring  forth  gra]ies, 
and  it  brought  forth  wild  grapes." 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  23  I 

Though  there  is  neither  simile  nor  metaphor,  there  is 
resemblance,  and  the  reader  knows  that  the  "choicest 
vine"  is  a  figurative  expression  used  to  represent  God's 
people,  Israel.  This  allegory  is  found  in  the  5th  chapter 
of  Isaiah. 

The  principal  thing  to  be  observed  in  regard  to  Allegory- 
is  to  avoid  mingling  the  literal  signification  with  the  figura- 
tive. The  figure  must  be  in  itself  an  intelligible,  consist- 
ent statement,  and  this  requires  much  skill. 

Allegory,  Parable,  and  Fable  are  closely  related. 

The  Parable,  one  form  of  the  allegory,  is  properly  the 
exhibition  of  a  religious  truth  by  means  of  facts  from  nature 
and  human  life.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  state- 
ments are  historically  true ;  they  are  offered  only  as  a  means 
of  conveying  a  higher  general  truth.  They  are,  however, 
always  true  to  nature ;  the  laws  of  the  nature  of  the  differ- 
ent beings  introduced  are  strictly  observed,  and  the  events 
are  such  as  might  have  taken  place.  "The  Prodigal  Son," 
"The  Sower,"  "The  Ten  Virgins,"  are  allegorical  tales  in 
Scripture,  which  were  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  illus- 
trating a  truth  to  which  they  have  a  similitude. 

The  Fable  differs  from  the  parable  in  this,  that  it  gives 
the  actions  and  words  of  human  beings  to  brutes  and  inan- 
imate objects — brutes  and  plants  are  made  to  think,  and 
speak,  and  act  like  men.  Purely  fictitious,  it  serves  to  teach 
some  moral  lesson  or  to  inculcate  some  prudent  maxim. 

Some  of  our  finest  literature  is  in  the  form  of  allegory. 
The  allegory  may  be  short,  as  in  many  proverbs,  but  it  is 
usually  an  extended  composition.  Pope's  Temple  of  Fame, 
Bunyan's  Pilgrini  s  Progress,  .Spenser's  Faerie  Qiicene,  and 
Swift's  Tale  of  a  Tub  and  Gulliver  s  Travels,  are  long  alle- 
gories. 


232  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC. 


EXERCISE  LXII. 

Direction. — Explain  what  is  described  in  these  allegorical  selections: 

I.  Vessels  large  may  venture  more, 

But  little  boats  should  keep  near  the  shore. 

2.  The  trees  went  forth  on  a  time  to  anoint  a  king  over  them  ;  and 
they  said  unto  the  olive  tree,  "Reign  thou  over  us."  But  the  olive 
tree  said  unto  them,  "  Should  I  leave  my  fatness,  wherewith  by  me 
they  honor  God  and  man,  and  go  to  be  promoted  over  the  trees?" 
And  the  trees  said  to  the  fig  tree,  "Come  thou,  and  reign  over  us." 
But  the  fig  tree  said  unto  them,  "Should  I  forsake  my  sweetness, 
and  my  good  fruit,  and  go  to  be  promoted  over  the  trees?"  Then 
said  the  trees  unto  the  vine,  "Come  thou,  and  reign  over  us."  And 
the  vine  said  unto  them,  "Should  I  leave  my  wine  which  cheereth 
God  and  man,  and  go  to  be  promoted  over  the  trees?"  Then  said 
all  the  trees  unto  the  bramble,  "Come  thou,  and  reign  over  us." 
And  the  bramble  said  unto  the  trees,  "If  in  truth  ye  anoint  me  king 
over  you,  then  come  and  put  your  trust  in  my  shadow;  and  if  not, 
let  fire  come  out  of  the  bramble,  and  devour  the  cedars  of  Lebanon." 
— J'idgesxy.:  8-16. 

Direction.  —  Bring  into  the  class  examples  of  Allegory,  Parable,  and  Fable. 
Bring,  to  be  read  in  class,  Ps.  Ixxx :  8-16 :  this  is  one  of  the  finest  and  most 
correct  allegories.     Explain  the  "  Fable,"  by  T.  B.  Aldrich,  page  105. 


Metonymy. 

Metonymy  is  <i  figure  of  .speech  in  which  the  name  of 
one  object  is  put  for  some  other  object,  the  two  being  so 
closely  related  that  the  mention  of  one  naturally  suggests 
the  other. 

Among  the  various  relations  which  give  rise  to  me- 
tonymy are  (i)  sign  and  the  tiling  signified ;  (2)  canse  and 
effect,  or  sonree  and  ivhat  fiozvs  from  it ;  (3)  instrnnient  and 
the  user  of  it ;  (4)  container  and  the  tiling  contained;  (5)  ma- 
terial and  the  thing  made  out  of  it.      Thus: 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  233 

Cause  for  effect;  as,  "I  read  Milton'" ;  "He  shall  bear 
his  iniquity.'' 

Effect  for  cause;  as,  "Man  shall  live  by  the  sivcat  of 
his  brow." 

Container  for  what  is  contained;  as,  "He  is  fond  of  the 
bottle'' ;   ''France  would  not  consent." 

Instrument  for  the  user;  as,  "He  thought  himself  not 
a  bad  oar." 

Material  for  thing  made  out  of  it;  as,  "The  sanctity  of 
the  laxvn  should  be  kept  unsullied." 

Sign  for  thing  signified;  as,  The  ''olive  branch,"  instead 
of  peace;  the  "throne,"  the  "pirple,"  the  "scepter,"  in- 
stead of  kingly  power. 

EXERCISE  LXIII. 

Direction.  —  Classify  the  metonymies  below,  and  recast  the  sentences,  using 
plain  language : 

1.  Strike  for  your  altars  and  your  fires. 

2.  Socrates  drank  the  fatal  cup. 

3.  The  pen  is  mightier  than  the  sword. 

4.  Gray  hairs  should  be  respected. 

5.  Bayonets  think. 

6.  The  kettle  boils. 

7.  They  have  Moses  and  the  prophets. 

8.  He  smokes  his  pipe. 

9.  Address  the  chair. 

10.  Take  away  the  sword;  states  can  be  saved  without  it. 

11.  Their  discords  sting  through  Burns  and  Moore. 

12.  We  sat  by  the  flesh-pots. 

13.  We  hanged  our  harps  upon  the  willows. 

14.  There  is  death  in  the  pot. 

15.  England's  commerce  v/hitens  every  sea. 

16.  Whoso  diggeth  a  pit  shall  fall  therein. 

17.  This  dish  is  well  cooked.  . 


234  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

1 8.  The  hedges  are  white  with  May. 

19.  The  prince  succeeded  to  the  throne. 

20.  They  keep  a  good  table. 

21.  The  ghttering  steel  descended. 

22.  The  crescent  in  Europe  is  waning  before  the  cross. 

23.  Lead  rained  upon  our  ranks. 

Direction. —  Bring  into  the  class  examples  of  metonymy,  and  tell  out  of 
what  relation  each  arises. 


Synecdoche. 

Synecdoche  is  a  figure  in  which  the  name  of  a  part  is 
used  to  represent  the  whole,  or  the  name  of  the  whole  is 
used  to  represent  a  part,  or  a  definite  number  to  represent 
an  indefinite;  as,  (i)  "All  hands  were  at  work."  (Here  a 
part  is  put  for  the  whole.)  (2)  "The  world  condemns 
him."  (In  this,  the  whole  is  put  for  a  part.)  "  (3)  "Ten 
thousand  fleets  sweep  over  thee  in  vain."  (A  definite 
number  represents  an  indefinite.)  In  like  manner,  an  at- 
tribute maybe  put  for  a  subject;  as,  "Youth  and  beauty," 
for,  "The  young  and  the  beautiful";  and  sometimes  a 
subject  for  its  attribute. 

This  figure  is  somewhat  akin  to  metonymy;  they  are 
both  founded  on  the  contiguity  of  two  objects  of  thought. 
The  species  for  the  genus,  the  genus  for  the  species,  and 
the  individual  for  his  class,  arc  all  examples  of  a  part  for 
the  whole  or  of  the  whole  for  a  part. 

The  advantage  of  synecdoche  seems  to  lie  in  its  limiting 
the  attention  to  that  particular  thing  which  we  wish  to 
emphasize.  It  is  a  natural  expedient  to  put  a  thing  well 
known  in  place  of  one  less  known. 

That  branch  of  the  figure  in  which  the  name  of  a  i)art 
denotes  the  whole  is  more  common  and  more  valuable 
than  the  other.  • 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  235 

EXERCISE  LXIV. 

Direction. — Point  out  the  synecdoches  in  the  following  sentences;  recast 
the  sentences,  using  plain  language  instead  of  figurative : 

1.  The  harbor  was  crowded  with  masts. 

2.  The  boy  left  his  father's  hearth. 

3.  The  snows  of  eighty  winters  whitened  his  head. 

4.  Ten  thousand  stars  were  in  the  sky. 

5.  Our  hero  was  gray. 

6.  Forty  sail  were  in  the  harbor. 

7.  At  present  there  is  no  distinction  among  the  upper  ten  thou- 
sand of  the  city. 

8.  Thine  eye  was  on  the  censer,  and  not  the  hand  that  bore  it. 
'9.  Consider  the  lilies  how  they  grow. 

10.  They  will  visit  the  Old  World  this  summer. 

11.  The  busy  fingers  toiled  on. 

12.  Youth  and  beauty  shall  be  laid  in  the  dust. 

13.  My  roof  shall  always  shelter  you. 

14.  He  bought  fifty  head  of  cattle. 

15.  It  is  a  city  of  spires. 

16.  The  enemy  are  in  possession  of  the  walls. 

17.  Cloth  is  the  product  of  the  shuttle. 

18.  She  has  seen  si.xteen  summers. 

19.  It  is  a  village  of  three  hundred  chimneys. 

20.  Miles  of  hulls  are  rotting  in  the  harbor  of  Portsmouth. 

Direction. —  Bring  into  the  class  examples  of  synecdoche,  illustrating  both 
branches  of  the  figure. 

POSTROPHE. 

Apostrophe  (Gr. ,  rneaning  "to  turn  away"),  is  a  figure 
of  speech  in  which  the  speaker  Uirns  aside  from  the  nat- 
ural course  of  his  ideas  to  address  the  absent  or  dead  as 
if  present,  to  address  former  ages,  future  ages,  or  the  ab- 
stract as  personal.  It  is  closely  allied  to  Personification, 
with  which  it  is  often  combined.  In  the  address  to  inan- 
imate things — the  form  of  the  figure  most  common — there 
is  of  course  personification.      The  principal  difference  be- 


236  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

tween  the  two  figures  is  the  address.  Objects  personified 
are  not  addressed;  objects  apostrophized,  whether  already 
persons,  or  made  such  by  the  figure,  are  addressed.  The 
following  are  examples:  "O  my  son  Absalom!  my  son, 
my  son  Absalom!  would  God  I  had  died  for  thee";  "O 
Rome,  Rome,  thou  hast  been  a  tender  nurse  to  me!" 

Apostrophe  is  expressive  of  strong  feeling;  hence,  it 
should  be  used  only  when  the  reader  or  hearer  is  already 
under  the  influence  of  some  emotion.  It  is  found  chiefly 
in  oratory  and  poetry. 

EXERCISE  LXV. 

Direction. —  Point  out  the  figure,  and  express  the  thought  in  these  sen- 
tences without  it: 

1.  Advance  then,  ye  future  generations! 

2.  Down,  thou  climbing  sorrow!  thy  element's  below. 

3.  Blow,  Winds,  and  crack  your  cheeks. 

4.  Farewell,  happy  Fields,  where  joy  forever  dwells. 

5.  Hail,  holy  Light,  offspring  of  heaven  first-born. 

6.  The  Grave,  dread  thing!  men  shiver  when  thou  art  named: 
.Nature  appalled  shakes  off  her  wonted  firmness. 

7.  Come,  gentle  Spring!  ethereal  Mildness,  come! 

8.  Hope !  thou  nurse  of  young  desire ! 

9.  O  Winter,  ruler  of  the  inverted  year! 

10.  O  Cuckoo!  shall  I  call  thee  Bird,  or  but  a  wandering  \'oire? 

1 1.  All  the  kings  of  the  nations,  even  all  of  them  lie  in  glory,  every 
one  in  his  own  house.  But  thou  art  cast  out  of  thy  grave,  like  an  abom- 
inable branch. 

12.  O  Hope,  with  eyes  so  fair,  what  was  thy  delighted  measure? 

13.  Sleep!  O  gentle  sleep!  Nature's  soft  nurse,  how  have  I  frighted 
thee,  that  thou  no  more  wilt  weigh  my  eyelids  down  ? 

14.  But,  alas,  you  are  not  all  here;  time  and  the  sword  have 
thinned  your  ranks.  Prescott,  Putnam,  Stark,  Brooks,  Read,  Pome- 
roy,  Bridge!  our  eyes  seek  for  you  in  vain  amid  this  broken  band. 

DiKKCiloN. —  Bring  into  the  class-apostroiihes  of  tlie  kinds  given  above. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  23/ 

Vision. 

Vision  is  closely  akin  to  Apostrophe  in  this,  that  it  rep- 
resents objects,  distant  in  space  or  time,  as  present.  In 
this  figure  the  writer  declares  himself  an  eye-witness  of 
some  event,  and  depicts  it  as  taking  place  in  his  presence. 
It  is  the  expression  of  powerful  emotion,  and  should  be 
used  but  seldom,  and  with  the  greatest  caution. 

The  following  are  examples: 

Methinks  I  see  in  my  mind  a  noble  and  puissant  nation  rousing 
herself  like  a  strong  man  after  sleep,  and  shaking  her  invincible 
locks;  methinks  I  see  her,  as  an  eagle,  mewing  her  mighty  youth, 
and  kindling  her  undazzled  eyes  at  the  full  midday  beam;  purging 
and  scahng  her  long  abused  sight  at  the  fountain  itself  of  heavenly 
radiance ;  while  the  whole  noise  of  timorous  and  flocking  birds,  with 
those  also  that  love  the  twilight,  flutter  about,  amazed  at  what  she 
means,  and  in  their  envious  gabble  would  prognosticate  a  year  of 
sects  and  schisms. — Milton. 

I  seem  to  myself  to  behold  this  city,  the  ornament  of  the  earth, 
and  the  capital  of  all  nations,  suddenly  involved  in  one  conflagra- 
tion. I  see  before  me  the  slaughtered  heaps  of  citizens,  lying  un- 
buried  in  their  ruined  country. —  Cicero  s  fourth  oration,  translated. 

From  the  tapestry  that  adorns  these  walls,  the  immortal  ances- 
tor of  this  noble  lord  frowns  with  indignation  at  the  disgrace  of  his 
country. — Earl  of  Chatham. 

Methought  I  heard  a  voice  cry,  "Sleep  no  more!  Macbeth  doth 
murder  sleep." — Shakespeare. 

Lo!  a  deer  from  Dalness,  hound-driven,  or  sullenly  astray,  slowly 
bearing  his  antlers  up  the  glen,  then  stopping  for  a  moment  to  snuff 
the' air,  then  away — away  I  The  rifle-shot  rings  dully  from  the  scarce 
echoing  snow-cliffs,  and  the  animal  leaps  aloft,  struck  by  a  certain 
but  not  sudden  death-wound.  Oh !  for  Fingal  now  to  pull  him  down 
like  a  wolf!  But  laboring  and  lumbering  heavily  along,  the  snow 
spotted,  as  he  bounds,  with  blood,  the  huge  animal  at  last  disappears 
round  some  rocks  at  the  head  of  the  glen. —  Wilson. 

Lochiel,  Lochiel!  beware  of  the  day 

When  the  Lowlands  shall  meet  thee  in  battle  array ! 


238  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

For  a  field  of  the  dead  rushes  red  on  rpy  sight, 

And  the  clans  of  Culloden  are  scattered  in  fight. 

They  rally,  they  bleed,  for  their  kingdom  and  crown ; — 

Woe,  woe  to  the  riders  that  trample  them  down  ! 

Proud  Cumberland  prances,  insulting  the  slain. 

And  their  hoof-beaten  bosoms  are  trod  to  the  plain. —  Campbell. 

y  Figures  of  Emphasis  differ  from  Figures  of  Intuition 
in  giving  prominence  and  emphasis  to  logically  important 
thoughts.  They  are  not  addressed  to  the  imagination, 
they  present  no  picture ;  but  they  direct  the  attention  to 
the  thought,  and  convey,  at  the  same  time,  the  feelings 
which  it  has  excited  in  the  writer's  mind.  Hence,  they 
are  called  Figures  of  Emphasis  and  Passion. 

Of  these,  Interrogation,  Exclamation,  Repetition,  and 
Climax,  have  been  discussed  under  "Strength."  The  re- 
maining figures  of  this  class  are  Antithesis,  Epigram,  Irony, 
and  Hyperbole. 

Antithesis. 

Antithesis  is  a  figure  of  speech  in  which  things  mutu- 
ally opposed  in  some  particular  are  set  over  against  each 
other ;  it  is  founded  upon  the  principle  that  opposites  when 
brought  together  reflect  light  upon  each  other. 

The  peculiar  marks  to  which  attention  is  directed  are 
brought  out  more  vividly  when  the  opposition  of  thought 
is  made  apparent  by  the  structure  t)f'  the  sentence  ;  hence, 
the  proper  form  of  antithesis  is  the  balanced  sentence — a 
sentence  in  which  the  members  are  constructed  on  the  same 
plan ;  as,  ''Gold  can  not  make  a  man  JiapJ}y,  any  more  than 
rags  can  make  him  miserabUy  There  may  be  antithesis 
of  thought,  however,  without  the  balanced  sentence. 

Antithesis  is  a  brilliant  and  dangerous  figure.  To  be 
effective,  there  must  always  be  a  real  opposition  of  thought; 


FIGURES  OF  Speech. 


239 


antithesis  in  which  there  is  an  opposition  in  language  with- 
out any  in  thought,  is  always  offensive.  This  figure  is  not 
suited  to  the  expression  of  strong  passion,  though  it  may 
be  employed  occasionally  with  effect  in  the  higher  forms 
of  prose.  Used  judiciously,  antithesis  is  a.  figure  of  great 
beauty,  but  its  frequent  recurrence  gives  to  a  discourse  the 
appearance  of  artifice  and  affectation. 


EXERCISE  LXVI. 

Direction. —  Explain  the  antithesis  in  each  of  the  following  sentences  by 
pointing  out  the  words  which  denote  the  things  contrasted: 

I.  When  all  the  blandishments  of  hfe  are  gone. 
The  coward  sneaks  to  death,  the  brave  live  on. 

2.  If  goodness  lead  him  not,  yet  weariness  may  toss  him  to  my 
breast. 

3.  Too  rashly  charged  the  troops  of  Error,  and  remain  as  trophies 
unto  the  enemies  of  Truth. 

4.  On  eagles'  wings  immortal  scandals  fly, 
While  virtuous  actions  are  but  born  and  die. 

5.  In  peace  a  charge,  in  war  a  weak  defense. 

6.  Art  may  err,  but  Nature  can  not  miss. 

7.  Fools  admire,  but  men  of  sense  approve. 

8.  For  words  are  wise  men's  counters,  they  do  but  reckon  by  them  ; 
but  they  are  the  money  of  fools. 

9.  Where  the  law  ends,  tyranny  begins. 

10.  For  fools  rush  in  where  angels  fear  to  tread. ^ — 

11.  In  the  world,  a  man  lives  in  his  own  age;  in  solitude,  in  all 
ages. 

12.  Plato's  arrow,  aimed  at  the  stars,  was  followed  by  a  track  of 
dazzling  radiance,  but  it  struck  nothing;  Bacon  fixed  his  eye  on  a 
mark  which  was  placed  on  the  earth,  and  within  bow-shot,  and  hit 
it  in  the  white. 

13.  Speech  was  given  to  the  ordinary  sort  of  men,  whereby  to  com- 
municate their  mind  ;  but  to  wise  men,  whereby  to  conceal  it. 


240  COM  POSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

14.  As  Hastings  himself  said,  the  arraignment  had  taken  place  be- 
fore one  generation,  and  the  judgment  was  pronounced  by  another. 

15.  He  knew  that  as  they  had  worshiped  some  gods  from  love,  so 
they  worshiped  others  from  fear. 

16.  The  Saxon  words  are  simple,  homely,  and  substantial,  fitted  for 
every-day  events  .and  natural  feelings ;  while  the  French  and  Latin 
words  are  elegant,  dignified,  and  artificial,  fitted  for  the  pomp  of  rhet- 
oric, the  subtlety  of  disputation,  or  the  courtly  reserve  of  diplomacy. 

17.  Once  to  every  man  and  nation  comes  the  moment  to  decide. 
In  the  strife  of  Truth  with  Falsehood,  for  the  good  or  evil  side; 
Some  great  cause,  God's  new  Messiah  offering  each  the  bloom  or 

Wight, 
Puts  the  goats  upon  the  left  hand,  and  the  sheep  upon  the  right; 
And  the  choice  goes  on  forever  'twixt  that  darkness  and  that  light. 

Direction.  —  Bring  examples  of  antithesis  to  the  class. 

Epigram. 

Epigram  at  first  meant  an  inscription  on  a  monument. 
Such  inscriptions  arc  usually  short,  containing  as  much  as 
possible  in  a  few  words;  hence,  Epigram  came  to  signify- 
any  pointed  expression.  As  a  figure  of  speech,  it  now 
means  a  statement  in  which  there  is  an  apparent  contra- 
diction between  the  form  of  the  expression  and  the  mean- 
ing really  intended.  Epigram  is  somewhat  akin  to  Antith- 
esis, since  in  both  these  figures  there  is  the  element  of  con- 
trariety. In  antithesis  it  is  the  contrariety  between  two  dif- 
ferent things  brought  together;  but  in  epigram  it  is  the 
contrariety  between  the  apparent  meaning  of  the  words 
and  the  real  meaning.  Thus.  ''Prosperity  gains  friends, 
but  adversity  tries  them"  is  an  antithesis;  "Some  are  too 
foolish  to  comm'xt  follies"  is  an  epigram — a  contradiction 
between  the  sense  and  the  form  of  the  words.  The  force 
of  epigram  lies  in  the  pleasant  surprise  attendant  upon  the 
perception  of  the  real  meaning. 


FIGURES  OF  SI'EEOH.  24I 


EXERCISE  LXVII. 

Direction. — Ascertain  the  real  meaning  in  the  following  sentences,  and  show 
the  contrariety  between  it  and  the  apparent  meaning: 

1.  Dark  with  excessive  brightness. 

2.  SoHtude  is  sometimes  best  society. 

3.  To  be  once  in  doubt  is  once  to  be  resolved. 

4.  I  believe  it  because  it  is  impossible. 

5.  Men  of  most  renowned  virtue  have  sometimes  by  transgressing 
most  truly  kept  the  law. 

6.  Learning  hath  gained  most  by  those  books  by  which  the  print- 
ers have  lost. 

7.  Our  antagonist  is  our  helper. 

8.  The  wind  and  waves  are  always  on  the  side  of  the  ablest  nav- 
igators. 

9.  Never  less  alone  than  when  alone. 

10.  The  child  is  father  of  the  man. 

11.  And  he  is  oft  the  wisest  man,  who  is  not  wise  at  all. 

12.  The  silent  organ  loudest  chants  the  master's  requiem. 

13.  He  is  a  man  of  principle,  in  proportion  to  his  interest. 

14.  Language  is  the  art  of  concealing  thought. 

15.  A  favorite  has  no  friend. 

Direction.  —Bring  into  the  class  examples  of  epigram,  and  express  their 
hidden  meaning  in  language  that  may  be  clearly  understood. 


Irony. 

Irony  is  a  figure  in  which  the  meaning  is  contrary  to 
what  is  expressed.  The  writer  seems  to  praise  what  is  base 
and  foolish,  and  in  doing  so  sets  forth  the  contrast  between 
the  real  character  of  the  object  and  what  is  said  of  it.  It 
is  a  forcible  figure,' but  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  being 
very  liable  to  be  misunderstood ;  in  oral  discourse  there  is 
something  in  the  tone  or  manner  to  show  the  real  drift  of 
the   speaker;    in    written   discourse,    this  aid  is  wanting; 

Rhet.— 21. 


242  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

hence,  great  care  is  necessary  to  make  it  clear  that  the  op- 
posite of  what  is  said  is  intended.  Another  disadvantage 
is,  that  it  is  personal,  and  exhibits  those  against  whom  it  is 
directed,  in  a  ridiculous  light;  as  it  thus  serves  chiefly  to 
expose  and  humiliate,  it  must  be  used  with  moderation  and 
discretion.  Vices  and  follies  of  all  kinds  are  often  more 
effectually  exposed  by  irony  than  by  serious  reasoning. 
Irony  sometimes  conveys  a  compliment  in  the  guise  of  an 
insult,  but  more  frequently  an  insult  in  the  guise  of  a  com- 
pliment. 

EXERCISE  LXVIII. 

Direction. — Point  out  the  real  meaning  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Pensive  poets  painful  vigils  keep,  sleepless  themselves  to  give 
their  readers  sleep. 

2.  Is  not  a  patron,  my  lord,  one  who  looks  with  unconcern  on  a 
man  struggling  for  life  in  the  water,  and,  when  he  has  reached  the 
ground,  encumbers  him  with  help  ? 

3.  O  excellent  interpreter  of  the  law,  master  of  iniquity  !  correcter 
and  amender  of  our  constitution ! 

4.  Magnificent  spectacle  of  human  happiness! 

5.  A  noisy  man  is  always  in  the  right. 

6.  A  mighty  hunter,  and  his  prey  was  man. 

7.  It  is  the  divine  right  of  kings  to  govern  wrong. 

8.  Great  families  of  state  we  show,  and  lords,  whose  parents  were 
^le  Lord  knows  who. 

9.  Blest  paper  credit !  last  and  best  supply  !  that  lends  corruption 
lighter  wings  to  fly. 

10.  They  made  and  recorded  a  sort  of  institute  and  digest  of  an- 
archy, called  the  "  Rights  of  Man." 

11.  Because  half  a  dozen  grasshoppers  under  a  fern  make  the  field 
ring  with  their  importunate  chink,  whilst  thousands  of  great  cattle  re- 
pose beneath  the  shadow  of  the  British  oak,  chew  the  cud,  and  are 
silent,  pray  do  not  imagine  that  those  who  make  the  noise  are  the 
only  inhabitants  of  the  field. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  243 

12.  No  doubt  but  ye  are  the  people,  and  wisdom  shall  die  with  you. 

13.  Cry  aloud,  for  he  is  a  god;  either  he  is  talking,  or  he  is  puj- 
suing,  or  he  is  in  a  journey,  or  peradventure  he  sleepeth  and  must  be 
awaked. 

Direction.  —  Bring  into  the  class  examples  of  irony,  and  express  the  real 
meaning  in  plain  language. 


Hyperbole. 

Hyperbole  con.sists  in  magnifying  an  object  beyond  the 
bounds  of  what  is  even  possible;  as,  "He  was  a  man  of 
boundless  knowledge. "  It  is  the  natural  expression  of  strong 
passion  and  emotion,  and  is  much  used  in  poetry  and  ora- 
tory. To  use  hyperbole  in  serious  prose,  the  objects  must 
be  great  and  unusual,  capable  of  producing  extraordinary 
effects.  Its  use  with  common,  trivial  objects  is  feeble  and 
unnatural.  It  should  not  be  introduced  unless  the  imagi- 
nation and  feelings  of  the  reader  are  prepared  to  admit  it ; 
even  then  it  should  be  brief,  and  used  sparingly.  This  fig- 
ure is  of  more  frequent  occurrence  when  a  comic  effect  is 
intended ;  as,  "  The  English  gain  two  hours  a  day  by  clip- 
ping words." 

"  In  sanguine  temperaments  or  impulsive  natures,"  says 
Graham,  ' '  tJiis  tendency  to  exaggerate  is  very  common.  With 
some  persons  everything  is  magnificent !  splendid!  stiblivie ! ! 
aivfid! ! !  They  never  condescend  to  use  more  ordinary  or 
moderate  terms.  They  seem  always  on  stilts,  raised  above 
common  mortals.  Sometimes  they  will  carry  this  feeling 
so  far  as  to  make  use — no  doubt  unconsciously — of  contra- 
dictory terms,  such  as  'immensely  small,'  'exquisitely 
ugly,'  'sublime  nonsense,'  etc.  And  such  expressions  are 
not  confined  to  their  spoken  language,  but  find  their  way 
into  whatever  they  may  be  called  on  to  write.    It  is  hardly 


244  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

necessary  to  state  that  this  practice  is  strongly  to  be  re- 
proved. When  we  exhaust  the  superlatives  of  our  language 
on  trivial  objects  or  common  occasions,  what  is  to  be  done 
for  terms  fitted  to  express  the  really  great  or  sublime?  Be- 
sides, morally  speaking,  it  has  a  pernicious  effect;  for  when 
we  once  contract  the  habit  of  indulging  in  exaggerated  lan- 
guage, no  one  knows  how  far  it  may  carry  us  beyond  the 
bounds  of  truth. " 

Litotes  is  a  form  of  expression  precisely  the  reverse  of 
hyperbole.  It  consists  in  giving  emphasis  to  an  idea  by 
using  terms  that  convey  less  than  the  truth;  as,  "Show 
thyself  a  man, "  meaning  that  the  person  spoken  to  is  urged 
to  put  forth  the  noblest  qualities  of  manhood.  A  common 
form  of  this  figure  is  the  denial  of  the  contrary  idea  instead 
of  a  direct  statement;  as,  "I  do  not  think  him  a  great 
man,"  meaning  that  he  is  not  only  not  great,  but  is  even 
inferior  to  most  men.  '  *  -. 

EXERCISE  LXIX. 

Direction. —Point  out  the  hyperboles  below,  and  state  whether  the  object 
is  magnified  or  diminibiied: 

1.  I  saw  their  chief,  tall  as  a  rock  of  ice ;  his  spear  the  blasted  fir; 
his  shield  the  rising  moon ;  he  sat  on  the  shore  like  a  cloud  of  mist  on 
the  hill. 

2.  And  thou,  Bethlehem  in  the  land  of  Judah,  art  not  the  least 
among  the  princes  of  Judah. 

3.  An  enemy  not  to  be  despised. 

4.  Sweet  childish  days,  that  were  as  long  as  twenty  days  are  now. 

5.  A  work  not  to  be  ashamed  of. 

6.  And  all  Arabia  breathes  from  yonder  box. 

7.  I  will  kill  thee  a  hundred  and  fifty  ways. 

8.  Music  hath  charms  to  soothe  the  savage  breast,  to  soften  rocks, 
or  bend  a  knotted  oak. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  245 

9.  And  panting  Time  toil  after  him  in  vain. 

10.  His  spear,  to  equal  which  the  tallest  pine  hewn  on  Norwegian 
hills,  to  be  the  mast  of  some  great  ammiral,  were  but  a  wand,  he 
walked  with. 

1 1 .  A  lover  may  bestride  the  Gossamer 
That  idles  in  the  wanton  summer  air 
And  yet  not  fall — so  light  is  vanity. 

12.  Here  Orpheus  sings;  trees,  moving  to  the  sound, 
Start  from  their  roots,  and  form  a  shade  around. 

13.  The  waves  leaped  mountain  high. 

14.  The  world  is  grown  so  base,  that  wrens  may  prey  where  eagles 
dare  not  perch. 

15.  Why,  man,  he  doth  bestride  the  narrow  world  like  a  Colossus; 
and  we  petty  men  walk  under  his  huge  legs,  and  peep  about  to  find 
ourselves  dishonorable  graves. 

16.  Falstaff,  thou  globe  of  flesh,  spotted  o'er  with  continents  of  sin. 


EXERCISE  LXX. 

Direction.  — Study  these  sentences  very  carefully,  find  the  figures  they  con- 
tain,—  sometimes  two  or  more  in  a  sentence, —  and  name  and  classify  them: 

1.  Grim-visaged  war  hath  smoothed  his  wrinkled  front. 

2.  Come,  seeling  Night,  scarf  up  the  tender  eye  of  pitiful  Day. 

3.  War  slays  its  thousands;  Peace,  its  ten  thousands. 

4.  Is  it  any  pleasure  to  the  Almighty  that  thou  art  righteous  ?  or 
is  it  gain  to  him  that  thou  makest  thy  ways  perfect?  Will  he  reprove 
thee  for  fear  of  thee  ?  will  he  enter  with  thee  into  judgment  ? 

5.  Time  has  laid  his  hand 

Upon  my  heart,  gently,  not  smiting  it, 
But  as  a  harper  lays  his  open  palm 
Upon  his  harp,  to  deaden  its  vibrations. 

6.  O  Art,  my  Art,  thou'rt  much,  but  Love  is  more! 
Art  symbolizes  heaven,  but  Love  is  God 

And  makes  heaven. 


246  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

7.   Who  builds  his  hope  in  air  of  your  fair  looks. 
Lives  like  a  drunken  sailor  on  a  mast ; 
Ready,  with  every  nod,  to  tumble  down 
Into  the  fatal  bowels  of  the  deep. 

8.  Kings  will  be  tyrants  from  policy,  when  subjects  are  rebels  from 
principle. 

9.  His  reasons  are  as  two  grains  of  wheat  hid  in  two  bushels  of 
chaff. 

10.  The  gown  quarreled  with  the  town. 

11.  The  bench  should  be  incorruptible. 

12.  Pity,  you  ancient  stones,  those  tender  babes,  whom  envy  hath 
immured  within  your  walls;  rough  cradle  for  such  little  pretty  ones! 
Rude  ragged  nurse,  old  sullen  play-fellow  for  tender  princes,  use  my 
babies  well ! 

13.  Lowliness  is  young  ambition's  ladder. 

.  14.  Your  words,  they  rob  the  Hybla  bees,  and  leave  them  honey- 
less. 

1  5.  There  is  a  tide  in  the  affairs  of  men,  which,  taken  at  the  flood, 
leads  on  to  fortune;  omitted,  all  the  voyage  of  their  life  is  bound  in 
shallows  and  in  miseries. 

16.  He  could  not  believe  that  he  was  such  a  bad  oar  as  the  old 
hands  make  him  out  to  be. 

17.  Most  sacrilegious  murder  hath  broke  ope  the  Lord's  anointed 
temple,  and  stole  thence  the  life  o'  the  building. 

18.  Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash. 

19.  Will  all  great  Neptune's  ocean  wash  this  blood  clean  from  my 
hand  ?  No :  this  my  hand  will  rather  the  multitudinous  seas  incar- 
nadine, making  the  green one  red. 

20.  The  pew  not  unfrequently  has  got  beyond  the  teaching  of  the 
pulpit. 

21.  Canst  thou  not  minister  to  a  mind  diseased,  pluck  from  the 
memory  a  rooted  sorrow,  raze  out  the  written  troubles  of  the  brain ; 
and  with  some  sweet  oblivious  antidote  cleanse  the  stuffed  bosom  of 
that  perilous  stuff,  which  weighs  upon  the  heart? 

22.  There  is  no  Enghsh  soul  stronger  to  direct  you  than  yourself, 
if  with  the  sap  of  reason  you  would  quench,  or  but  allay,  the  fire  of 
passion. 

23.  But  all  hoods  make  not  monks. 

24.  You  ha\e  by  fortune  and  his  highness'  favors,  gone  slightly  o'er 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 


247 


low  steps;  and  now  are  mounted  where  powers, are  your  retainers; 
and  your  words,  domestics  to  you,  serve  your  will,  as't  please  yourself 
pronounce  their  office. 

25.  A  noble  spirit,  as  yours  was  put  into  you,  ever  casts  such  doubts, 
as  false  coin,  from  it. 

26.  Now  I  feel  of  what  coarse  metal  ye  are  molded — envy. 

27.  I  have  touched  the  highest  point  of  all  my  greatness  ;  and,  from 
that  full  meridian  of  my  glory,  I  haste  now  to  my  setting. 

28.  Canst  thou  bind  the  sweet  influences  of  Pleiades,  or  loose  the 
bands  of  Orion  ?  Canst  thou  bring  forth  Mazzaroth  in  his  season  ?  or 
canst  thou  guide  Arcturus  with  his  sons?  Knowest  thou  the  ordi- 
nances of  heaven  ?  canst  thou  set  the  dominion  thereof  in  the  earth  ? 

29.  This  is  the  state  of  man ;  to-day  he  puts  forth  the  tender  leaves 
of  hope,  to-morrow  blossoms,  and  bears  his  blushing  honors  thick  upon 
him;  the  third  day,  comes  a  frost,  a  killing  frost;  and — when  he 
thinks,  good  easy  man,  full  surely  his  greatness  is  a-ripening — nips 
his  root,  and  then  he  falls,  as  I  do. 

30.  The  mountains  saw  thee  and  they  trembled ;  the  overflowing 
of  the  water  passed  by ;  the  deep  uttered  his  voice,  and  lifted  up  his 
hands  on  high. 

31.  If  you  blow  your  neighbor's  fire,  don't  complain  if  the  sparks 
fly  in  your  face. 

32.  With  arms  outstretched,  the  druid  Wood  waits  with  his  bene- 
dicite. 

33.  Say,  I  taught  thee,  say,  Wolsey — that  once  trod  the  ways  of 
glory,  and  sounded  all  the  depths  and  shoals  of  honor — found  thee  a 
way,  out  of  his  wreck,  to  rise  in. 

34.  His  promises  were,  as  he  then  was,  mighty ;  but  his  perform- 
ance, as  he  is  now,  nothing. 

35.  Men's  evil  manners  live  in  brass;  their  virtues  we  write  in 
water. 

36.  I  am  right  glad  to  catch  this  good  occasion  most  thoroughly 
to  be  winnowed,  where  my  chaff  and  corn  shall  fly  asunder. 

37.  Trumpet,  blow  loud,  send. thy  brass  voice  through  all  these 
lazy  tents. 

38.  O  farewell,  dear  Hector,  Look,  how  thou  diest!  look,  how 
thy  eye  turns  pale!  look,  how  thy  wounds  do  bleed  at  many  vents  ! 
Hark,  how  Troy  roars!  how  Hecuba  cries  out!  how  poor  Androm- 
ache shrills  her  dolors  forth !    Behold,  destruction,  frenzy,  and  amaze- 


248  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

merit,  like  witless  antics,  one  another  meet,  and   all  cry  —  Hector! 
Hector's  dead!  O  Hector! 

39.  O  earth,  so  full  of  dreary  noises ! 
O  men  with  wailing  in  your  voices ! 

O  delved  gold  the  wallers  heap ! 
O  strife,  O  curse,  that  o'er  it  fall ! 
God  strikes  a  silence  through  you  all, 

And  giveth  His  beloved  sleep. 

40.  They  boast  they  come  but  to  improve  our  state,  enlarge  our 
thoughts,  and  free  us  from  the  yoke  of  error.  Yes,  they  will  give 
enlightened  freedom  to  our  minds,  who  are  themselves  the  slaves  of 
passion,  avarice,  and  pride. 

41.  Can  storied  urn  or  animated  bust 

Back  to  its  mansion  call  the  fleeting  breath? 
Can  Honor's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust, 
Or  Flattery  soothe  the  dull,  cold  ear  of  death  ? 

42.  Come  and  trip  it,  as  you  go,  on  the  light  fantastic  toe. 

43.  We  sat  beneath  the  shade. 

44.  My  strength  hath  been  my  ruin,  and  my  fall  my  stay. 

45.  His  cattle  feed  on  a  thousand  hills. 

46.  There  the  strawy  Greeks,  ripe  for  his  edge,  fall  down  before 
him,  like  the  mower's  swath. 

47.  My  mind  is  troubled,  like  a  fountain  stirred;  and  I  myself  see 
not  the  bottom  of  it. 

48.  Welcome  ever  smiles,  and  Farewell  goes  out  sighing, 

49.  To  fear  the  worst,  oft  cures  the  worst. 

50.  Light  boats  sail  swift,  though  greater  hulks  draw  deep. 

51.  The  amity  that  Wisdom  knits  not,  Folly  may  easily  untie; 

52.  Her  hand,  in  whose  comparison  all  whites  are  ink,  writing 
their  own  reproach;  to  whose  soft  seizure  the  cygnet's  "down  is  harsh 


53.  Saul  and  Jonathan  were  lovely  and  pleasant  in  their  lives,  and 
in  death  they  were  not  divided.  They  were  swifter  than  eagles; 
they  were  stronger  than  lions. 

54.  Every  flower  did,  as  a  prophet,  weep  what  it  foresaw  in  Hec- 
tor's wrath. 

55.  The  lamp  burns  low  in  the  silent  chamber. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  249 

56.  The  stranger  praised  the  eloquence  of  our  pulpit,  bar,  an*" 
senate. 

57.  But,  Mr.  Speaker,  the  gentleman  says  we  have  a  right  to  tax 
America  !  Oh!  inestimable  right!  Oh!  wonderful,  transcendent  right, 
the  assertion  of  which  has  cost  this  country  thirteen  provinces,  six 
islands,  one  hundred  thousand  lives,  and  seventy  millions  of  money. 

58.  Dear,  my  soul  is  gray 

With  poring  over  the  long  sum  of  ill; 
So  much  for  vice,  so  much  for  discontent, 
So  much  for  the  necessities  of  power, 
So  much  for  the  connivances  of  fear. 

59.  Hast  thou  given  the  horse  strength  ?  hast  thou  clothed  his  neck 
with  thunder?     Canst  thou  make  him  afraid  as  a  grasshopper? 

60.  Freeze,  freeze,  thou  bitter  sky,  that  dost  not  bite  so  nigh  as 
benefits  forgot. 

6[.  As  fire  drives  out  fire,  so  pity,  pity. 

62.  What  stronger  breast-plate  than  a  heart  untainted  ? 

63.  Strange  cozenage !  None  would  live  passed  years  again ;  yet 
all  hope  pleasure  in  what  yet  remain ;  and  from  the  dregs  of  life 
think  to  receive  what  the  first  sprightly  running  could  not  give. 

64.  He  who  ascends  to  mountain-tops,  shall  find 

The  loftiest  peaks  most  wrapped  in  clouds  and  snow ; 
He  who  surpasses  or  subdues  mankind, 
Must  look  down  on  the  hate  of  those  below. 
Though  high  above  the  sun  of  glory  glow. 
And  far  beneath  the  earth  and  ocean  spread. 
Round  him  are  icy  rocks,  and  loudly  blow 
Contending  tempests  on  his  naked  head. 
And  thus  reward  the  toils  which  to  those  summits  led, 

65.  Ye  stars !  which  are  the  poetry  of  heaven ! 

If  in  your  bright  leaves  we  would  read  the  fate 
Of  men  and  empires, — 'tis  to  be  forgiven. 
That  in  our  aspirations  to  be  great. 
Our  destinies  o'erleap  their  mortal  state. 
And  claim  a  kindred  with  you ;  for  ye  are 
A  beauty  and  a  mystery,  and  create 
In  us  such  love  and  reverence  from  afar, 
That  fortune,  fame,  power,  life,  hath  named  themselves  a  star. 


250  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


EXERCISES  IN  COMPOSITION. 

REPRODUCTION  XII. 

PROSE    READINGS. 

REPRODUCTION  Xllf. 

VALDEMAR    THE    HAPPY. 

Favored  in  love,  and  first  in  war. 
Ever  had  been  King  Valdemar. 

Bards  had  written  heroic  lays, 

Minstrels  had  sung  in  Valdemar's  praise. 

Mothers  had  taught  their  babes  his  name. 
Maidens  had  dreamed  it;  this  is  fame. 

Beautiful  eyes  grew  soft  and  meek 

When  Valdemar  opened  his  mouth  to  speak. 

Warriors  grim  obeyed  his  word, 
Nobles  were  proud  to  call  him  Lord. 

"Favored  in  love  and  famed  in  war, 
Happy  must  be  King  Valdemar!" 

So,  as  he  swept  along  in  state. 
Muttered  the  crone  at  the  palace  gate, — 

Laughing  to  clasp  in  her  withered  palms 
The  merry  monarch's  golden  alms. 

Home  at  evening,  for  rest  is  sweet, 
Tottered  the  beggar's  weary  feet. 

Home  at  evening  from  chase  and  ring. 
Buoyant  and  brave  came  Court  and  King. 

Flickered  the  lamp  in  the  cottage  room. 
Flickered  the  lamp  in  the  castle's  gloom. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  25  I 

One  went  forth  at  the  break  of  day, 
Asking  ahiis  on  the  King's  highway. 

One  lay  still  at  the  break  of  day — 
A  king  uncrowned,  a  heap  of  clay. 

For  swiftly,  suddenly,  in  the  night, 
A  wind  of  death  had  put  out  the  light. 

And  never  again  might  Valdemar 
Strike  lance  for  love  or  lance  for  war. 

Silent,  as  if  on  holy  ground, 

The  weeping  courtiers  throng  around. 

Tenderly,  as  his  mother  might, 

They  turn  his  face  to  the  morning  light, — 

Loose  his  garments  at  throat  and  wrist, 
Softly  the  silken  sash  untwist. 

Under  the  linen  soft  and  white, 
What  surprises  their  aching  sight  ? 

Fretting  against  the  pallid  breast, 
Find  they  a  penitent's  sackcloth  vest. 

Seamed,  and  furrowed,  and  stained,  and  scarred, 
Sadly  the  flesh  of  the  King  is  marred. 

Never  had  monk  under  serge  and  rope, 
Never  had  priest  under  alb  and  cope, 

Hidden  away  with  closer  art 

The  passion  and  pain  of  a  weary  heart, 

Than  had  he  whose  secret  torture  lay 
Openly  shown  in  the  light  of  day. 

At  the  lips  all  pale  and  the  close-shut  eyes. 
Long  they  gazed  in  their  mute  surprise — 

Eyes  once  lit  with  the  fire  of  youth. 
Lips  that  had  spoken  words  of  truth. 

From  each  to  each  there  floated  a  sigh, — 
"  Had  this  man  reason  ?     Then  what  am  I  ?" 


252  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

O  friend,  think  not  that  stately  step, 
That  hfted  brow  or  that  smihng  hp, 

That  sweep  of  velvet  or  fall  of  lace, 
Or  robes  that  cling  with  regal  grace, 

Are  signs  that  tell  of  a  soul  at  rest : 

Peace  seldom  hides  in  a  Valdemar's  breast. 

She  shrinks  away  from  the  palace  glare, 
To  the  peasant's  hut  and  the  mountain  air, 

And  kisses  the  crone  at  the  palace  gate, 
While  the  poor,  proud  King  is  desolate. 

Margaret  E.  Sangster. 


DE  VEL  OPMENT  XIII. 

THE    spider's    web — A    FABLE. 

A  DEXTROUS  spider  chose 

The  dehcate  blossom  of  a  garden  rose 

Whereon  to  plant  and  bind 

The  net  he  framed  to  take  the  insect  kind. 

And  when  his  task  was  done, 

Proud  of  the  cunning  lines  his  art  had  spun. 

He  said:  "  I  take  my  stand 

Close  by  my  work,  and  watch  what  I  have  planned. 

And  now,  if  Heaven  should  bless 

My  labors  with  but  moderate  success, 

No  fly  shall  pass  this  way. 

Nor  gnat,  but  it  shall  fall  an  easy  prey." 

He  spoke,  when  from  the  sky 

A  strong  wind  swooped,  and  whirling,  hurried  by, 

And,  far  before  the  blast. 

Rose,  leaf,  and  web,  and  plans  and  hopes  were  cast. 

W.  C.  Bryant. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 

DE  VEL  OPMENT  XIV. 
ELDORADO. 

Gayly  bedight, 

A  gallant  knight, 
In  sunshine  and  in  shadow, 

Had  journeyed  long. 

Singing  a  song, 
In  search  of  Eldorado. 

But  he  grew  old, — 

This  knight  so  bold, — 
And  o'er  his  heart  a  shadow 

Fell  as  he  found 

No  spot  of  ground 
That  looked  like  Eldorado. 

And,  as  his  strength 

Failed  him  at  length, 
He  met  a  pilgrim  Shadow. 

"Shadow,"  said  he, 

"Where  can  it  be — 
This  land  of  Eldorado?" 

"Over  the  Mountains 

Of  the  Moon, 
Down  the  Valley  of  the  Shadow, 

Ride,  boldly  ride," 

The  Shade  replied, — 
"  If  you  seek  for  Eldorado." 


^DJ 


Edgar  A.  Poe. 


DEVELOPMENT  XV. 

ABOU    BEN    ADHEM. 

Abou  Ben  Adhem  (may  his  tribe  increase!) 
Awoke  one  night  from  a  deep  dream  of  peace. 
And  saw,  within  the  moonlight  in  his  room. 
Making  it  rich  and  like  a  lily  in  bloom, 


254  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

An  angel  writing  in  a  book  of  gold. 

Exceeding  peace  had  made  Ben  Adhem  bold ; 

And  to  the  presence  in  the  room  he  said, 

"What  writest  thou?" — The  vision  raised  its  head, 

And  with  a  look  made  of  all  sweet  accord. 

Answered,  "The  names  of  those  who  love  the  Lord." 

"And  is  mine  one?"  said  Abou.     "Nay,  not  so," 

Replied  the  angel.     Abou  spoke  more  low. 

But  cheerly  still ;  and  said,  "  I  pray  thee,  then. 

Write  me  as  one  that  loves  his  fellow-men." 

The  angel  wrote,  and  vanished.     The  next  night 

It  came  again,  with  a  great  wakening  light. 

And  showed  the  names  whom  love  of  God  had  blest, 

And,  lol  Ben  Adhem's  name  ledall  the  rest. 

Leigh  Hunt. 


DEVELOPMENT  XVI. 
A    DESERTED    FARM. 

The  elms  were  old,  and  gnarled,  and  bent — 
The  fields,  untilled,  were  choked  with  weeds, 

Where  every  year  the  thistles  sent 
Wider  and  wider  their  winged  seeds. 

Farther  and  farther  the  nettle  and  dock 

Went  colonizing  o'er  the  plain. 
Growing  each  season  a  plenteous  stock 

Of  burs  to  protect  their  wild  domain. 

The  last  who  ever  had  plowed  the  soil 
Now  in  the  furrowed  church-yard  lay — 

The  boy  who  whistled  to  lighten  his  toil 
Was  a  sexton  somewhere  far  away. 

Instead,  you  saw  how  the  rabbit  and  mole 
Burrowed  and  furrowed  with  never  a  fear; 

How  the  tunneling  fox  looked  out  of  his  hole, 
Like  one  who  notes  if  the  skies  are  clear. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  255 

No  mower  was  there  to  startle  the  birds 
With  the  noisy  whet  of  his  reeking  scythe ; 

The  quail,  like  a  cow-boy  caUing  his  herds, 
Whistled  to  tell  that  his  heart  was  blithe. 

Now  all  was  bequeathed  with  pious  care — 
The  groves  and  fields  fenced  round  with  briers — 

To  the  birds  that  sing  in  the  cloisters  of  air, 
And  the  squirrels,  those  merr)^  woodland  friars. 

T.  Buchanan  Read. 


SUBJECTS  FOR  COMPOSITION. 

1.  Holiday. 

2.  Little  Barefoot. 

3.  Will-o'-the-wisps. 

4.  Planting  the  Tree. 

5.  A  Sheaf  of  Wheat. 

6.  Pictures  in  the  Fire. 

7.  The  Old  Arm-Chair. 

8.  The  Apple- Woman. 

9.  The  Uses  of  Pencils. 

10.  A  Lost  Child's  Story. 

11.  A  Day  in  the  Country. 

12.  My  First  Day  at  School. 

13.  The  Life  of  a  Lazy  Man. 

14.  The  Day-Dreams  of  a  Cat. 

15.  An  Old  Mill  and  the  Miller. 

16.  A  Council  of  Rats  and  Mice. 

17.  The  Story  of  a  Faded  Shawl. 

18.  The  Boy  Who  Always  Forgot. 

19.  How  the  Soldier  Lost  his  Arm. 

20.  The  Trials  of  a  Street-Car  Conductor. 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE    PARAGRAPH. 

A  COMPOSITION  of  any  length — unless  the  very  briefest 
note — requires  a  division  into  paragraphs  in  order  to  please 
the  eye  and  to  render  the  relation  of  its  parts  readily  in- 
telligible. 

The  art  of  constructing  paragraphs  is  not  acquired  with- 
out labor  and  patience.  One  may  be  skillful  in  framing 
sentences,  and  not  succeed  in  combining  them  into  con- 
nected paragraphs.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to  analyze  care- 
fully those  of  writers  on  different  subjects,  so  as  to  learn 
their  method  of  forming  them. 

There  are  three  qualities  to  be  aimed  at  in  the  construc- 
tion of  paragraphs:  (i)  Unity;  (2)  Continuity;  (3)  Variety. 

Unity.  —  In  order  that  a  paragraph  shall  possess  the 
quality  of  unity,  it  is  requisite  that  the  sentences  compos- 
ing it  shall  relate,  each  and  all,  to  the  one  definite  division 
of  the  subject  which  they  illustrate  and  explain.  A  par- 
agraph should  have  but  a  single  theme,  —  one  central 
tJionght,  —  and  all  digressions  from  this  principal  thought 
should  be  excluded.  No  sentence  has  any  right  to  a  po- 
sition in  connection  with  others,  unless  it  is  closely  related 
to  the  preceding  sentence  or  to  the  one  following. 

Continuity.  —  In  order  that  a  paragraph  shall  possess 
the  quality  of  continuity,  it  is  requisite  that  the  sentences 
be  so  constructed  and  so   placed   as  to  carry  the  line  of 

thought  naturally  and  suggestively  from  one  to  the  other. 

(^56) 


THE  PARAGRAPH.  2$/ 

It  is  vitally  important  that  the  sentences  be  so  connected 
that  their  relations  will  be  clearly  seen.  The  highest  art  is 
required  to  cause  the  stream  of  thought  to  flow  smoothly, 
bearing  the  reader  along  without  doubts  or  interruptions. 
Accurate  thinking  and  considerable  practice  in  writing 
will,  however,  give  facility  in  seizing  the  true  relation  of 
thoughts  and  expressing  them  with  clearness  and  exact- 
ness. 

Sentences  are  connected  by  co-ordinate  conjunctions, 
and  by  conjunctional  phrases;  as,  at  the  same  tunc,  07i  the 
contrar}!,  m  like  manner,  in  shoj't,  to  conclude,  so  far,  etc. 
The  expression  of  continuous  thought,  accordingly,  re- 
quires skill  in  the  management  of  such  particles ;  it  is  by 
the  proper  use  of  these  connectives  that  threads  of  thought 
are  woven  into  a  beautiful  fabric ;  yet  it  requires  as  much 
judgment  to  avoid  the  excessive  use  of  conjunctions  as  to 
use  them  correctly.  A  lavish  use  of  conjunctions  renders 
the  style  dragging  and  stiff;  on  the  other  hand,  to  dis- 
pense with  the  use  of  them  has  a  tendency  to  break  up 
the  paragraph  into  short,  independent  sentences,  among 
which  no  connection  can  be  found,  and  which  it  is  impos- 
sible to  retain  in  the  memory.  Conjunctions  may  fre- 
quently be  avoided  by  the  structure  of  the  sentence,  the 
relation  of  a  sentence  to  the  preceding  being  distinctly  in- 
dicated by  means  of  inversion,  contrast,  or  words  referring 
to  something  that  has  gone  before.  By  this  means  we 
may  form  a  series  of  sentences  in  which  the  succeeding 
will  appear  to  be  suggested  by  some  expression  or  turn 
of  thought  in  the  one  preceding.  This  method,  when 
skillfully  employed,  imparts  a  high  degree  of  beauty  to 
the  style. 

The  following  sentences  will  illustrate  the  nature  of  this 
mode  of  reference.     The  words  of  reference  are  in  italics : 

Rhet.— 22. 


258  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

I  addressed  him  in  some  lines  from  the  Iliad,  considering  that,  of 
such  languages  as  I  possessed,  Greek,  in  point  of  longitude,  came 
geographically  nearest  to  an  Oriental  one.  He  worshiped  me  in  a 
devout  manner,  and  replied  in  what  I  suppose  was  Malay.  In  tJiis 
way  I  saved  my  reputation  with  my  neighbors ;  for  the  Malay  had 
no  means  of  betraying  the  secret.  He  lay  down  upon  the  floor  for 
about  an  hour,  and  then  pursued  his  journey.  On  kis  departure  I 
presented  him  with  a  piece  of  opium.  To  /lim,  as  an  Orientalist,  I 
concluded  that  opium  must  be  familiar. — De  Quincey. 

Variety. — In  order  that  a  paragraph  possess  the  quaHty 
of  variety,  it  is  requisite  that  the  constituent  sentences  shall 
differ  both  in  length  and  in  structure. 

A  continued  uniformity  of  length  or  structure  exhausts 
the  attention  and  becomes  intolerably  irksome.  Even  to 
begin  or  end  sentences  too  often  in  the  same  manner  is 
objectionable.  Writers  differ  greatly  as  to  the  length  of 
sentences;  some  prefer  long,  others  short.  Short  sen- 
tences are  generally  more  lively  and  familiar,  and  better 
adapted  to  light  and  informal  writing,  to  works  of  enter- 
tainment and  popular  instruction.  Long  sentences  require 
a  greater  effort  of  attention,  which  is  sometimes  an  advan- 
tage, sometimes  a  disadvantage — they  may,  by  presenting 
the  thought  as  a  whole,  assist  the  memory;  but,  even  if 
periodic,  they  may  be  difficult  to  follow,  and,  if  loose,  they 
may  provoke  impatience.  Long  sentences  are  adapted  to 
elaborate,  exact,  and  dignified  composition. 

The  most  effective  writing  requires  a  combination  of 
long  and  short  sentences — the  one  for  clearness  and  force, 
the  other  for  dignity  and  impressiveness. 

The  first  sentence  of  a  paragraph  should  be  as  short  as 
the  sense  will  permit.  The  attention  of  the  reader  is  thus 
arrested  at  the  outset,  without  being  subjected  to  any  un- 
necessary strain.  When  interest  and  feeling  have  been 
aroused,  longer  sentences  are  more  appropriate.     A  long 


THE  PARAGRAPH. 


259 


sentence,  gathering  up  the  various  threads  of  thought,  has 
its  appropriate  place  at  the  close.  To  follow  a  very  long 
sentence  with  a  very  short  one  is  objectionable. 

The  qualities  of  a  well  constructed  paragraph  are  ex- 
emplified in  the  following: 

{The  ihevie) :  Death  is  at  all  times  solemn,  but  never  so  much 
so  as  at  sea.  {First  illustration) :  A  man  dies  on  shore:  his  body 
remains  with  his  friends,  and  "the  mourners  go  about  the  streets"; 
but  when  a  man  falls  overboard  at  sea  and  is  lost,  there  is  a  sudden- 
ness in  the  event,  and  a  difficulty  in  realizing  it,  which  gives  to  it  an 
air  of  awful  mystery.  {Second  illustration,  partly  repetitionary) :  A 
man  dies  on  shore:  you  follow  his  body  to  the  grave,  and  a  stone 
marks  the  spot.  You  are  prepared  for  the  event.  There  is  always 
something  which  helps  you  to  realize  it  when  it  happens,  and  to  recall 
it  when  it  has  passed.  ( Third  illustration') :  A  man  is  shot  down  by 
your  side  in  battle,  and  the  mangled  body  remains  an  object,  and  a 
real  evidence;  but,  at  sea,  the  man  is  near  you — at  your  side — you 
hear  his  voice,  and  in  an  instant  he  is  gone,  and  nothing  but  vacancy 
shows  his  loss. — Dana. 

In  rural  occupation  there  is  nothing  mean  and  debasing.  It  leads 
a  man  forth  among  scenes  of  natural  grandeur  and  briuty ;  it  leaves 
him  to  the  workings  of  his  own  mind,  operated  upon  by  the  purest 
and  most  elevating  of  external  influences.  Such  a  man  may  be 
simple  and  rough,  but  he  can  not  be  vulgar.  The  man  of  refine- 
ment, therefore,  finds  nothing  revolting  in  an  intercourse  with  the 
lower  orders  of  rural  life,  as  he  does  when  he  casually  mingles  with 
the  lower  orders  of  cities.  He  lays  aside  his  distance  and  reserve, 
and  is  glad  to  waive  the  distinctions  of  rank,  and  to  enter  into  the 
honest,  heartfelt  enjoyments  of  common  life.  Indeed,  the  very  amuse- 
ments of  the  country  bring  men  more  and  more  together,  and  the 
sound  of  hound  and  horn  blend  all  feelings  into  harmony.  I  believe 
this  is  one  great  reason  why  the  nobility  and  gentry  are  more  popular 
among  the  inferior  orders  in  England  than  they  are  in  any  other 
country;  and  why  the  latter  have  endured  so  many  excessive  press- 
ures and  extremities,  without  repining  more  generally  at  the  unequal 
distribution  of  fortune  and  pri\'ilege. —  IV.  Irving. 

The  style  of  Bunyan  is  delightful  to  every  reader,  and  invalua- 
ble as  a  study  to  every  person  who  wishes  to  obtain  a  wide  com 


26o  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC. 

mand  over  the  English  language.  The  vocabulary  is  the  vocabulary 
of  the  common  people.  There  is  not  an  e.xpression,  if  we  except  a 
few  technical  terms  of  theology,  which  would  puzzle  the  rudest  peas- 
ant. We  have  observed  several  pages  which  do  not  contain  a  single 
word  of  more  than  two  syllables.  Yet  no  writer  has  said  more  ex- 
actly what  he  meant  to  say.  For  magnificence,  for  pathos,  for  vehe- 
ment exhortation,  for  subtle  disquisition,  for  every  purpose  of  the  poet, 
the  orator,  and  the  divine,  this  homely  dialect,  the  dialect  of  working 
men,  is  perfectly  sufficient.  There  is  no  book  in  our  literature  on 
which  we  would  so  readily  stake  the  fame  of  the  unpolluted  English 
language,  no  book  which  shows  so  well  how  rich  that  language  is  in 
its  own  proper  wealth,  and  how  little  it  has  been  improved  by  all  that 
it  has  borrowed. — Macanlay. 

There  is  one  mind  common  to  all  individual  men.  Every  man 
is  an  inlet  to  the  same,  and  to  all  of  the  same.  He  that  is  once  ad- 
mitted to  the  right  of  reason  is  made  a  freeman  of  the  whole  estate. 
What  Plato  has  thought  he  may  think ;  what  a  saint  has  felt  he  may 
feel;  what  at  any  time  has  befallen  any  man,  he  can  understand. 
Who  hath  access  to  this  universal  mind  is  a  party  to  all  that  is  or  can 
be  done,  for  this  is  the  only  and  sovereign  agent. — Etnersoft. 


EXERCISE  LXXI. 

Direction.  —  Combine  the  following  statements  or  facts  in  each  paragraph 
into  a  paragraph  of  your  own,  supplying  what  is  needed,  and  write  on  the  first 
hne  of  eacli  paragraph  the  topic  it  develops: 

I.  Now  a  class  in  Latin  is  called  to  recite.  Forth  steps  a  row  of 
queer-looking  little  fellows.  They  wear  square-skirted  coats.  They 
wear  small-clothes,  with  buttons  at  the  knee.  They  look  like  so 
many  grandfathers.  Like  grandfiithers  in  their  second  childhood. 
These  lads  are  to  be  sent  to  Cambridge.  They  are  to  be  educated 
for  the  learned  professions.  Old  Master  Cheever  has  lived  so  long. 
Seen  so  many  generations.  He  can  almost  prophesy.  The  sort  of 
man  each  boy  will  be.  One  urchin  a  doctor.  Will  administer  pills. 
Potions.  Stalk  gravely  through  life.  Perfumed  with  asafoetida. 
Another  will  wrangle  at  the  bar.  Fight  his  way  to  wealth.  Honors. 
In  his  declining  age.  A  worshipful  member  of  his  majesty's  council. 
A  third  shall  be  a  worthy  successor.     The  master's  favorite.     The  old 


THE  PARAGRAPH.  26I 

Puritan  ministers.  In  their  graves.  He  shall  preach.  Great  unc- 
tion. Effect.  Leave  volumes.  Sermons.  Print  and  manuscript. 
Benefit  of  future  generations. 

2.  Certain.  At  the  time.  His  conduct  excited  disapprobation. 
Great  and  general.  While  Elizabeth  lived.  Disapprobation  was  not 
expressed.  Loudly.  Deeply  felt.  Great  change  at  hand.  Health 
of  the  Queen  long  decaying.  Operation  of  age.  Disease.  Assisted 
by  acute  mental  suftering.  Pitiable  melancholy  of  last  days.  Gen- 
erally ascribed..  Fond  regret  for  Essex.  Disposed  to  attribute.  De- 
jection. Physical  causes.  Partly.  Conduct  of  courtiers.  Ministers. 
Did  all  in  their  power.  Conceal  intrigues.  Court  of  Scotland.  Keen 
sagacity.  Not  deceived.  Did  not  know  the  whole.  Knew.  Sur- 
rounded by  men.  Impatient.  New  world.  At  her  death.  Never 
been  attached.  Affection.  Now  slightly  attached.  Interest.  Pros- 
tration and  flattery.  Conceal  the  cruel  truth.  Whom  she  had 
trusted.  Promoted.  Never  loved  her.  Fast  ceasing  to  fear  her. 
LInable  to  avenge  herself.  Too  proud.  Complain.  Suffered.  Sor- 
row and  resentment.  Prey.  Heart.  After  a  long  career.  Power, 
prosperity,  and  glory.     Died.     Sick  and  weary  of  the  world. 


EXERCISE  LXXII. 

Direction.  —  Study  the  general  groups  of  facts  carefully,  see  what  ones  of 
each  group  are  related  in  meaning  and  can  be  united,  form  as  many  paragraphs 
out  of  each  group  as  you  think  there  should  be,  and  write  on  the  first  line  of  each 
paragraph,  the  topic  developed: 

I.  The  personal  character  as  well  as  history  of  the  bold  outlaw  is 
stamped  on  every  verse.  Against  luxurious  bishops  and  tyrannic  sher- 
iffs Robin  Hood's  bow  was  ever  bent  and  his  arrow  in  the  string.  The 
will  was  kept  secret  during  the  short  remainder  of  his  life.  On  the 
third  of  November,  1700,  he  expired.  And  I  sank  down  where  I 
stood,  and  hid  my  face  against  the  ground.  All  Madrid  crowded  to 
the  palace.  The  gates  were  thronged.  I  lay  still  a  while ;  the  night 
wind  swept  over  the  hill  and  over  me,  and  died  moaning  in  the  dis- 
tance. The  antechamber  was  filled  with  embassadors  and  grandees, 
eager  to  learn  what  dispositions  the  deceased  sovereign  had  made. 
He  attacked  and  robbed,  and  sometimes  slew,  the  latter  without  either 
compunction  or  remorse.     The  rain  fell  fast,  wetting  me  afresh  to  the 


262  coMFusrnoN  and  rhetoric. 

skin.  In  his  more  humorsome  moods  he  contented  himself  with  en- 
ticing them  in  the  guise  of  a  butcher  or  a  potter,  with  the  hope  of  a 
good  bargain,  into  the  green  wood.  At  length  the  folding  doors 
were  flung  open.  Could  I  but  have  stiffened  to  the  still  frost.  It 
rpight  have  pelted  on.  The  Duke  of  Abrantes  came  forth.  He  first 
made  merry  and  then  fleeced  them.  He  announced  that  the  whole 
Spanish  monarchy  was  bequeathed  to  Philip,  Duke  of  Anjou.  He 
made  them  dance  to  such  music  as  his  forest  afforded.  I  should  not 
have  felt  it.  My  living  flesh  shuddered  to  its  chilling  influence.  He 
made  them  join  with  Friar  Tuck  in  hypocritical  thanksgiving.  I  arose 
ere  long.     The  justice  and  mercy  they  had  experienced. 

2.  Intellect  is  man's  grand  distinction.  As  you  have  done  a  thou- 
sand times  before.  You  take  up  the  book  in  an  idle  moment.  That 
which  gave  the  brightest  luster  to  his  character.  His  mental  capacity. 
You  wonder,  perhaps.  The  loftiness  and  nobleness  of  his  soul.  As 
you  turn  over  the  leaves.  It  is  this  which  renders  him  highly  and  pe- 
culiarly responsible  to  his  Creator.  Not  only  to  the  elocjuence  of 
Chatham.  What  the  world  finds  in  it  to  admire.  It  is  on  account  of 
this  that  the  rule  over  other  animals  is  established  in  his  hands.  If 
ever  there  has  lived  a  man.  And  it  is  this  mainly.  Suddenly,  as  you 
read.  This  enables  him  to  exercise  dominion  over  the  powers  of  nat- 
ure. Your  fingers  press  close  upon  the  covers.  That  man,  beyond  all 
doubt,  was  William  Pitt.  One  that  lived  in  modern  times.  Your  frame 
thrills.  It  enables  him  to  subdue  them  to  himself.  One  to  whom  the 
praise  of  a  Roman  spirit  might  be  truly  applied.  The  passage  chanced 
upon  chains  you  like  a  spell.  He  loved  power.  He  loved  it  only  as 
a  patriot  should.  It  is  so  vividly  true.  He  knew  and  felt  his  own 
energies.  His  whole  heart  was  burning  to  revive  the  one.  It  is  so 
vividly  beautiful.  It  burned  to  wreathe  fresh  laurels  round  the  other. 
He  also  felt  that  his  country  needed  them.  He  loved  power  because 
he  saw  the  public  spirit  languishing.     The  national  glory  declined. 

3.  These  are  not  her  glory.  The  bloom  of  that  fair  face  is  wasted. 
In  an  open  space  behind  the  constable  there  was  seen  approaching  "a 
white  chariot."  She,  in  some  measure,  returned  the  enemy's  fire. 
Wherever  literature  consoles  sorrow  or  assuages  pain.  This  was  owing 
to  the  shift  of  the  wind.  Drawn  by  two  palfreys  in  white  damask.  The 
hair  is  gray  with  care.  Wherever  it  brings  gladness  to  eyes  which  fail 
with  wakefulness  and  tears.  And  to  the  position  into  which  she  had 
tended.  The  damask  swept  the  ground.  The  brightness  of  those  eyes 
is  quenched.    One  of  her  own  broadsides  was  discharged  in  the  direc- 


THE  PARAGRAPH.  263 

tion  of  the  town.  A  golden  canopy  was  borne  above  the  chariot.  It 
made  music  with  silver  bells.  Eyes  that  ache  for  the  dark  house  and 
the  long  sleep.  Their  hds  hang  drooping.  In  the  chariot  sat  the  ob- 
served of  all  observers.  The  immortal  influence  of  Athens  is  there 
exhibited  in  its  noblest  form.  The  beautiful  occasion  of  all  this  glitter- 
ing homage.  The  other  toward  Fort  English.  The  face  is  stony  pale. 
Fortune's  plaything  of  the  hour,  the  Queen  of  England.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  ship  was  magnificent.  As  one  living  in  death.  Queen  at 
last.  She  is  borne  along  upon  the  waves  of  this  sea  of  glory.  Mean 
weeds  attire  the  queen  of  the  world.  She  breathes  the  perfumed  in- 
cense of  greatness.  She  had  risked  her  delicacy,  her  honor,  her  self-re- 
spect to  win  greatness.  These  weeds  her  own  hand  has  mended.  She 
had  won.  There  she  sat.  Dressed  in  white  tissue  robes.  Her  fair  hair 
flowed  loose  over  her  shoulders.  The  death-hurdle  where  thou  sittest 
pale  and  motionless  must  stop.  A  light  coronet  encircled  her  temples. 
Coronet  of  gold  and  diamonds.  She  seemed  at  that  hour  the  most 
beautiful  of  all  England's  daughters.     She  seemed  the  most  favored. 

Synthesis  of  Paragraphs  into  a  Theme. — Just  as 
words,  phrases,  and  clauses  may  be  joined  in  sentences, 
and  sentences,  jointly  developing  a  topic,  or  thought,  may 
be  united  into  a  paragraph,  so  paragraphs  may  be  con- 
nected, standing  one  after  another  on  the  page,  because 
they  are  related — the  thoughts  which  they  develop,  being 
divisions  of  the  one  general  subject,  or  topic.  Paragraphs 
so  related  and  so  placed  form  a  composition  or  theme. 

EXERCISE  LXXIII. 

Direction. — Study  these  facts  carefully,  and  group  them  into  two  great 
paragraphs ;  under  these  make  sub-paragraphs,  if  you  think  there  should  be 
such,  and  write  the  subject  of  the  theme  at  the  top : 

I.  The  dinner  is  now  served.  The  bride  sits  between  the  bride- 
groom and  the  priest.  The  spokesman  delivers  an  oration.  The  ora- 
tion is  after  the  ancient  custom  of  his  fathers.  He  interlards  it  well 
with  quotations.  The  quotations  are  from  the  Bible.  He  invites  the 
Savior  to  be  present  at  this  marriage-feast.  The  Savior  was  present  at 
the  marriage-feast  in  Cana  of  Galilee.     The  table  is  not  sparingly  set 


264  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

forth.  Each  end  makes  a  long  arm.  The  feast  goes  cheeily  on.  Be- 
tween the  courses,  punch  and  brandy  pass  round.  Here  and  there 
a  pipe  is  smoked.  This  is  done  while  waiting  for  the  next  dish. 
They  sit  long  at  table.  All  things  must  have  an  end.  A  Swedish 
dinner  must  end.  Then  the  dance  begins.  It  is  led  by  the  bride  and 
the  priest.  They  perform  a  solemn  minuet  together.  After  midnight 
comes  the  last  dance.  The  girls  form  a  ring  around  the  bride.  This 
is  to  keep  her  from  the  hands  of  the  married  women.  The  married 
women  endeavor  to  break  through  the  magic  circle.  Seize  their  new 
sister.  After  long  struggling  they  succeed.  I  must  not  forget  the 
changing  seasons  of  the  northern  clime.  There  is  no  long  lingering 
spring.  No  unfolding  leaf  and  blossom  one  by  one.  There  is  no  long 
lingering  autumn.  An  autumn,  pompous  with  many-colored  leaves. 
With  the  glow  of  Indian  summers.  But  winter  and  summer  are  won- 
derful. They  pass  into  each  other.  The  quail  has  hardly  ceased  pip- 
ing in  the  corn.  When  winter  comes  from  the  folds  of  trailing  clouds. 
Broadcast  over  the  land,  she  sows  snow,  icicles,  and  rattling  hail.  The 
days  wane  apace.  Ere  long  the  sun  hardly  rises  above  the  horizon. 
Or  he  does  not  rise  at  all.  The  moon  and  stars  shine  through  the  day. 
At  noon  they  are  pale  and  wan.  In  the  southern  sky  a  glow,  as  of 
sunset,  burns  along  the  horizon.  This  glow  is  red  and  fiery.  It  then 
goes  out.  Pleasantly  under  the  silver  moon  ring  the  steel  shoes  of  the 
skaters  on  the  frozen  sea.  Under  the  silent,  solemn  stars,  ring  out 
voices  and  the  sound  of  bells. 


EXERCISE    LXXIV. 

DiRrxTlON. — Study  carefully  these  facts,  thrown  together  promiscuously,  sort 
them,  and  group  them  into  as  many  paragraphs,  arranged  in  their  proper  order, 
as  you  think  there  should  be.  Write  at  the  head  the  subject  of  the  theme;  write, 
also,  the  topic  of  each  paragraph: 

I .  The  early  Christians  here  hid  themselves.  These  cities  of  the  dead 
are  scattered  all  over  Europe.  They  abound  in  Italy.  Just  within  the 
entrance  to  the  church  of  St.  Sebastian  there  is  a  door.  This  is  the 
door  by  which  descent  is  made  to  the  Catacombs.  We  did  not  descend. 
They  here  hid  their  devotions  from  their  persecutors.  Martyrs  and 
saints  were  buried  here.  I  had  determined  to  withstand  every  tempta- 
tion to  enter  these  cities  of  the  dead.     I  had  determined  this  from  the 


thp:  paragraph.  205 

first  outset  of  my  travels.  How  many  accidents  have  happened!  Four- 
teen popes  were  buried  here.  They  have  never  since  been  heard  of. 
He  stepped  forward  to  take  it  up.  He  lost  both  ball  and  thread.  Sev- 
enty thousand  martyrs  are  said  to  have  been  here  laid  in  their  un- 
known graves.  How  many  have  lost  their  way !  A  young  man  entered 
without  a  guide.  A  whole  school  of  boys  from  Rome  entered  the  Cat- 
acombs. He  carried  a  light  and  a  ball  of  twine.  They  came  with 
their  teacher  and  a  guide.  How  many  have  been  shut  out  from  return 
by  the  falling  of  earth!  For  a  morning  excursion  of  observation  and 
amusement.  He  fastened  the  end  of  the  twine  at  the  door.  How  the 
light  has  gone  out  by  accident !  He  felt  for  it  but  dared  not  move 
another  step.  That  he  might  find  the  way  back  by  following  the  thread. 
How  the  foot  has  stumbled  !  They  entered.  They  have  never  since 
been  seen.  Nothing  more  is  known.  To  boast  of  having  wandered 
alone  and  in  safety  through  these  entangled  passages.  He  was  re- 
stored to  life.  He  had  wound  through  numerous  crooked  alleys.  By 
accident,  he  dropped  his  twine.  He  had  doubled  untold  and  undis- 
tinguishable  corners.  He  felt  for  it.  His  light  was  burning  out.  Ha 
dared  not  move  another  step.  He  found  his  way  to  the  upper  earth. 
Grew  more  nervous  and  bewildered.  No  thread!  He  groped  around 
in  a  small  circle.  He  watched  it  grow  less  and  less.  In  his  desperate 
panic  he  fell  upon  the  earth.  To  caution  liis  friends  against  such  fool- 
hardy enterprises.  It  grew  dimmer  and  dimmer.  He  looked  with 
desperate  sharpness.  He  dropped  his  light.  His  hand  trembled.  It 
went  out.     His  hand  fell  upon  the  twine. 

Direction. —  Do  with  these  sentences  as  directed  with  those  in  the  preced 
ing  set : 

I.  "Peace,  Mr.  Griffith,"  interrupted  the  captain.  "Yield  the  trum> 
pet  to  Mr.  Gray."  The  captain  bended  from  the  rigging.  His  gray 
locks  blew  about  in  the  wind.  To  haggard  care  they  added  a  look  of 
wildness.  This  was  exhibited  by  the  light  of  his  lantern.  Griffith 
threw  his  speaking-trumpet  on  the  deck.  "  Then  all  is  lost  indeed, 
and  among  the  rest,  the  foolish  hopes  with  which  I  visited  this  coast." 
He  walked  proudly  away.  He  muttered  in  bitterness  of  feeling.  The 
pilot  had  applied  the  trumpet  to  his  mouth.  He  did  this  before  the 
crew  understood  their  situation.  His  voice  rose  above  the  tempest. 
He  thundered  forth  his  orders.  Each  command  was  given  distinctly. 
A  precision  that  showed  him  to  be  master  of  his  profession.     The 

Rhet.— 23. 


266  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

helm  was  kept  fast.  The  headyards  swung  up  heavily  against  the 
wind.  The  vessel  was  soon  whirling  round  on  her  keel.  She  whirled 
with  a  retrograde  movement.  Griffith  was  too  much  of  a  seaman  not 
to  perceive.  The  pilot  had  seized  the  only  method  that  promised  to 
extricate  the  vessel  from  her  situation.  The  pilot  did  this  with  a  per- 
ception almost  intuitive.  Griffith  was  young,  impetuous,  and  proud. 
He  was  also  generous.  He  forgot  his  resentment  and  his  mortifica- 
tion. He  rushed  forward  among  the  men.  His  presence  and  ex- 
ample added  certainty  to  the  experiment.  The  ship  fell  off  slowly 
before  the  gale.  She  bowed  her  yards  nearly  to  the  water.  She  felt 
the  blast  pouring  its  fury  on  her  broadside.  The  surly  waves  beat 
violently  against  her  stern.  They  seemed  to  reproach  her  for  de- 
parting from  her  usual  manner  of  moving.  The  voice  of  the  pilot 
was  still  heard.  It  was  steady  and  calm.  It  was  clear  and  high.  It 
reached  every  ear.  The  obedient  seamen  whirled  the  yards.  They 
did  this  in  despite  of  the  tempest.  It  seemed  they  handled  the  toys  of 
their  childhood.  The  beautiful  ship  was  obedient  to  her  government. 
She  threw  her  bows  up  gracefully  toward  the  wind,  again.  Her  sails 
were  trimmed.  She  moved  out  from  among  the  dangerous  shoals. 
She  had  been  embayed  there.  She  moved  steadily  and  swiftly.  In 
the  same  way  she  had  approached  them.  There  was  a  moment  of 
breathless  astonishment.  It  succeeded  the  accomplishment  of  the 
nice  maneuver.  There  was  no  time  for  the  usual  expressions  of  sur- 
prise. The  stranger  still  held  the  trumpet.  He  continued  to  lift  his 
voice.  The  bowlings  of  the  blast.  He  directed  any  change  in  the 
management  of  the  ship.  He  was  guided  by  prudence  or  by  skill. 
There  was  a  fearful  struggle  for  their  preservation.  It  lasted  an  hour 
longer.  At  each  step  the  channel  became  more  complicated.  The 
shoals  thickened  around  the  mariners  on  every  side.  The  lead  was 
cast  rapidly.  The  quick  eye  of  the  pilot  seemed  to  pierce  the  dark- 
ness. A  keenness  of  vision  that  exceeded  human  power.  They  were 
under  the  guidance  of  one  who  understood  navigation  thoroughlv. 
It  was  apparent  to  all  in  the  vessel.  Their  exertions  kept  pace  with 
their  reviving  confidence. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

SPECIAL    PROPERTIES    OF    STYLE. 

Wit  and  Pathos. 

Wit. — This  quality  of  style  results  from  the  union  of 
seemingly  unrelated  or  incongruous  ideas — a  union  produc- 
ing surprise  and  exciting  a  sense  of  the  ridiculous.  It  is 
an  odd  fancy,  short-lived,  and  depending  upon  the  associa- 
tion of  incongruities  expressed  in  brief  and  pointed  lan- 
guage. 

Wit  is  not,  like  clearness,  a  common  and  necessary  qual- 
ity of  style.  It  takes  many  forms,  and  befits  many  uses 
and  occasions ;  it  has  its  advantages  and  its  disadvantages. 
Often  it  is  aggressive,  exposing  hypocrisy,  ridiculing  pre- 
tension and  pomposity,  snubbing  impertinence,  and  laying 
bare  foibles,  follies,  vices,  meannesses,  and  wickednesses, 
wherever  it  finds  them.  Oftentimes  it  is  only  sportive, 
genial,  and  humane,  and,  without  hostility  to  anybody  or 
anything,  ministers  to  our  sense  of  the  ridiculous,  to  our 
feeling  of  mirthfulness. 

The  following  examples  serve  to  illustrate  the  definition 
of  wit : 

She  strove  the  neighborhood  to  please, 

With  manners  wondrous  winning, 
And  never  followed  wicked  ways, — 

Unless  when  she  was  si?ining. — Goldsmith. 

A  man  from  Maine,  who  had  never  paid  more  than  twenty -five 

cents  for  admission  to  an  entertainment,  went  to  a  New  York  theater 

where  the  play  was  "The  Forty  Thieves,"  and  was  charged  a  dollar 

(267) 


268  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

and  a  half  for  a  ticket.  Handing  the  pasteboard  back,  he  remarked, 
"  Keep  it,  mister ;  I  don't  want  to  see  the  other  thirty-nine." 

A  physician  finds  a  lady  reading  "Twelfth  Night,"  and  asks: 
"  When  Shakespeare  wrote  about  Patience  on  a  monument,  did  he 
mean  doctors'  patients?"  "No,"  is  the  reply;  "you  do  not  find  doc- 
tors' patients  on  monuments,  but  under  them." 

His  face — that  infallible  index  of  the  mind — presented  a  vast  ex- 
panse, unfurrowed  by  any  of  those  lines  and  angles  which  disfigure 
the  human  countenance  with  what  is  termed  expression. 

Several  kindred  forms  of  thought  may  be  classified 
under  wit.      Thus: 

Satire  is  used  to  ridicule  the  follies  and  vices  of  men, 
and  to  reform  abuses,  sometimes  humorously  and  good- 
naturedly,  and  sometimes  severely  and  indignantly.  A 
production  of  this  kind,  long  or  short,  is  called  a  satire. 
The  following  lines  from  the  Love  of  Fame  furnish  an 
illustration : 

Some  for  renown  on  scraps  of  learning  dote, 
And  think  they  grow  immortal  as  they  quote. 
To  patchwork  learned  quotations  are  allied ; 
Both  strive  to  make  our  poverty  our  pride.  —  Young. 

Sarcasm  is  used  only  to  scourge  the  follies  and  vices  of 
men.  It  is  keen  and  reproachful,  and  may  be  witt)\  The 
etymology  of  the  word,  implying  to  tear  flesh  like  dogs, 
gives  us  some  idea  of  its  character.  As  an  example: 
Ward,  a  flippant  Parliamentary  orator,  who  used  to  write 
out  and  commit  to  memory  bombastic  speeches,  having 
severely  criticised  Rogers'  poem  entitled  Italy,  the  poet 
took  his  revenge  in  these  lines: 

Ward  has  no  heart,  they  say ;  but  I  deny  it : 

He  has  a  heart  and  geis  his  speeches  by  ii. — Rogers. 

Burlesque  is  a  humorous  degradation  of  a  dignified  sub- 
ject.     It  is  sometimes  merely  a  combination  of  the  great 


SPECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE.  269 

and  the  little.  Things  may  be  burlesqued  not  only  by 
words,  but  by  pictures,  by  gestures,  by  attitudes — by  lu- 
dicrous imitations  of  all  kinds. 

Tlie  Mock-heroic  is  a  kind  of  witty  discourse  used  to  raise 
things  low  or  trivial  to  a  plane  of  false  dignity  and  impor- 
tance ;  as, 

"To  arms,  to  arms!"  the  fierce  virago  cries, 

And  swift  as  lightning  to  th'  combat  flies. 

All  side  in  parties,  and  begin  the  attack : 

Fans  clap,  silks  rustle,  and  tough  whalebones  crack ; 

Heroes'  and  heroines'  shouts  confusedly  rise. 

And  bass  and  treble  voices  strike  the  skies. 

No  common  weapons  in, their  hands  are  found; 

Like  gods  they  fight,  nor  dread  a  mortal  wound. — Pope. 

A  Parody,  or  Travesty,  is  a  burlesque  imitation  of  some- 
thing serious.  The  words  of  a  production  are  copied  in 
part,  but  the  spirit  of  the  piece  is  changed  and  degraded; 
as, 

Original :     I  stood  on  the  bridge  at  midnight, 

As  the  clocks  were  striking  the  hour, 
And  the  moon  rose  o'er  the  city. 
Behind  the  dark  church-tower. 

Parody :        We  stood  on  the  bridge  at  evening. 
As  the  Bell  was  striking  the  gong. 
And  the  two  in  happy  communion. 
With  quick  steps  passed  along. 

A  Pun  is  an  unexpected  relation  between  words,  or  a 
play  on  words.  It  is  an  inferior  species  of  wit,  and  one 
which  is  often  carried  to  a  tiresome  excess  ;  yet  it  can  not 
be  denied  that  puns  are  sometimes  very  effective.  The 
following  are  examples: 

Sydney  Smith,  hearing  a  boy  read  of  patriarchs  as  partridges, 
declared,  "  It  is  too  bad  to  make  game  of  them." 


2/0  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Observing  on  a  board  the  warning,  "Beware  the  dog,"  Hood  wrote 
underneath,  "Ware  be  the  dog?" 

Dean  Ramsay  tells  of  a  soaked  Scotch  minister  who  was  rubbed 
down  at  the  kirk,  and  told  he  need  not  fear;  he  would  be  dry  enough 
when  he  got  into  the  pulpit. 

The  Romans  were  said  to  urn  their  dead,  but  we  earn  our  living. 

Humor. — The  forms  of  thought  thus  far  described  are 
generally  hostile,  and  are  used  to  attack  and  destroy;  but 
there  is  another  form,  which  provokes  not  a  "laugh  at 
men  and  things,"  but  a  "laugh  zvitJi  them."  This  form  of 
thought,  which  Thackeray  has  defined  to  be  a  compound 
of  wit  and  love,  is  called  humor.  Humor  is  wit,  with  an 
infusion  of  good  nature  and  tender  sympathy.  Wit  is  a 
brilliant  flash ;  humor  is  a  lingering  sunbeam,  cheering 
while  it  brightens.  It  is  nobler  than  wit,  for  it  mingles 
the  tender  emotions  of  the  heart  with  the  brilliant  con- 
ceptions of  the  intellect.  The  following  lines  show  a  fine 
distinction  between  wit  and  humor: 

Wit  lashes  external  appearances,  or  cunningly  exaggerates  single 
foibles  into  character ;  humor  glides  into  the  heart  of  its  object,  looks 
lovingly  on  the  infirmities  it  detects,  and  represents  the  whole  man. 

Wit  is  abrupt,  darting,  scornful,  and  tosses  its  analogies  in  your 
face;  humor  is  slow  and  shy,  insinuating  its  fun  into  your  heart  *  * 
*  *  *  Old  Dr.  Fuller's  remark  that  a  negro  is  "the  image  of  God 
in  ebony,"  is  humorous;  Horace  Smith's,  that  "the  task-master  is  the 
image  of  the  devil  cut  in  ivory,"  is  witty.  —  WJiipple. 

Sydney  Smith  remarked  to  the  Chapter  of  St.  Paul's,  on 
the  proposal  to  lay  a  wooden  pavement  around  the  build- 
ing, "If  wc  lay  our  heads  together  the  thing  is  done."  As 
he  includes  himself,  this  is  humorous.  Had  he  said,  "If 
you  lay  your  heads  together,"  it  would  have  been  witty, 
but  not  humorous. 

The  following  passage  from  Hawthorne's  Rill  from  the 
Toxvn  Pump,  is  an  example  of  humor: 


.^PECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE.  2/1 

"  Welcome,  most  rubicund  sir !  You  and  I  have  been  great  stran- 
gers hitherto;  nor,  to  confess  the  truth,  will  my  nose  be  anxious  for  a 
closer  intimacy,  till  the  fumes  of  your  breath  be  a  little  less  potent. 
Mercy  on  you  man  !  the  water  absolutely  hisses  down  your  red-hot 
throat !  Fill  again,  and  tell  me,  on  the  word  of  an  honest  toper,  did 
you  ever,  in  cellar,  tavern,  or  any  kind  of  dram-shop,  spend  the  price 
of  your  children's  food  for  a  swig  half  so  delicious  ?  Now,  for  the  first 
time  these  ten  years,  you  know  the  flavor  of  cold  water.  Good-by, 
and,  whenever  you  are  thirsty,  remember  that  I  keep  a  constant  sup- 
ply at  the  old  stand." — HazvthorJie. 

Pathos. — This  element  of  style  is  found  in  passages 
which  express  sorrow  or  grief.  It  is  founded  on  sympathy, 
and  seldom  fails  to  engage  the  interest  and  touch  the  heart. 
It  has  some  natural  connection  with  humor.  Laughter  and 
tears  lie  close  to  each  other,  and  the  transition  from  the 
humorous  to  the  pathetic  is  short  and  easy.  The  writings 
of  some  of  our  greatest  humorists  contain  passages  of  ex- 
quisite pathos:  those  of  Irving,  Hood,  Dickens,  and  Lamb, 
afford  many  such  instances. 

The  following  are  illustrations  of  the  pathetic: 

O  my  friend!  I  think  sometimes,  could  I  recall  the  days  that 
are  past,  which  among  them  should  I  choose?  Not  those  "merrier 
days,"  not  the  "pleasant  days  of  hope,"  not  "those  wanderings  with 
a  fair-haired  maid,"  which  I  have  so  often  and  so  feelingly  regretted, 
but  the  days,  Coleridge,  of  a  mother  s  fondness  for  her  school-boy. 
What  would  1  give  to  call  her  back  to  earth  for  one  day,  on  my  knees 
to  ask  her  pardon  for  all  those  little  asperities  of  temper,  which,  from 
time  to  time,  have  given  her  gentle  spirit  pain  ! — Char/es  Ltunb. 

"Why,  bless  you,  my  dear,"  said  Toby,  "how  often  have  I  heard 
them  bells  say,  'Toby  Veck,  Toby  Veck,  keep  a  good  heart,  Toby! 
Toby  Veck,  Toby  Veck,  keep  a  good  heart,  Toby  ! ' 

"When  things  is  very  bad,  very  bad  indeed,  I  mean;  almost  at 
the  worst;  then  it's,  'Toby  Veck,  Toby  Veck,  job  coming  soon, 
Toby!    Toby  Veck,  Toby  Veck,  job  coming  soon,  Toby  !'    That  way." 

"  And  it  comes — at  last,  father,"  said  Meg,  with  a  touch  of  sadness 
in  her  pleasant  voice. 

"Always,"  answered  Toby.     "Never  fails." — C/iarles  Dickens. 


2/2  COMPOSITION  AND  RPIETORIC. 

The  service  being  ended,  preparations  were  made  to  deposit  the 
coffin  in  the  earth.  There  was  that  bustling  stir  that  breaks  so 
harshly  on  the  feehngs  of  grief  and  affection;  directions  were  given 
in  the  cold  tones  of  business;  the  striking  of  spades  into  sand  and 
gravel,  which,  at  the  grave  of  those  we  love,  is  of  all  sounds  the  most 
withering.  The  bustle  around  seemed  to  awaken  the  mother  from  a 
wretched  reverie.  She  raised  her  glazed  eyes,  and  looked  about  with 
a  faint  wildness.  As  the  men  approached  with  cords  to  lower  the 
coffin  into  the  grave,  she  wrung  her  hands  and  broke  into  an  agony 
of  grief.  The  poor  woman  who  attended  her,  took  her  by  the  arm, 
endeavored  to  raise  her  from  the  earth,  and  whispered  something  like 
consolation.  *****  As  they  lowered  the  body  into  the  earth, 
the  crackling  of  the  cords  seemed  to  agonize  her;  but  when,  on  some 
accidental  obstruction,  there  was  a  jostling  of  the  coffin,  all  the  tender- 
ness of  the  mother  burst  forth ;  as  if  any,  any  harm  could  come  to  him 
who  was  far  beyond  the  reach  of  worldly  suffering. — Irving. 


EXERCISE    LXXV. 

Direction. — In  the  following  sentences  classify  those  that  are  witty  accord- 
ing to  the  species  of  wit  which  enters  into  them  ;  point  out  those  containing  pathos: 

1.  What  a  comfort  a  dull  but  kindly  person  is,  to  be  sure,  at  times! 
A  ground-glass  shade  over  a  gas-lamp  does  not  bring  more  solace  to 
our  dazzled  eyes  than  such  a  one  to  our  minds.  There  are  men  of 
esprit  who  are  excessively  exhausting  to  some  people.  They  are  the 
talkers  that  have  what  may  be  called  the  jerky  minds.  They  say 
bright  things  on  all  possible  subjects,  but  their  zigzags  rack  you  to 
dcatli.  After  a  jolting  half  hour  with  these  jerky  companions,  talking 
with  a  dull  friend  affords  great  relief.  It  is  like  taking  a  cat  in  your 
lap  after  holding  a  squirrel. 

2.  O  comrades!  enemies  no  more,  let  us  take  a  mournful  hand  to- 
gether as  we  stand  by  this  royal  corpse,  and  call  a  truce  to  battle! 
Low  he  lies  to  whom  the  proudest  used  to  kneel  once,  and  who  was 
cast  lower  tiian  the  poorest ;  dead,  whom  millions  prayed  for  in  vain. 
Driven  off  his  throne;  buffeted  by  rude  hands;  with  his  children  in 
revolt;  the  darling  of  his  old  age  killed  before  him  untimely;  our 
Lear  hangs  over  her  breathless  lips  and  cries,  "Cordelia,  Cordelia, 
slay  a  little!" 


SPECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE.  2/3 

3.  The  Frenchman  having  swallowed  the  first  spoonful,  made  a  full 
pause;  his  throat  swelled  as  if  an  egg  had  stuck  in  his  gullet,  his  eyes 
rolled,  and  his  mouth  underwent  a  series  of  involuntary  contractions 
and  dilatations.  Pallet,  who  looked  steadfastly  at  this  connoisseur,  with 
a  view  of  consulting  his  taste  before  he  himself  would  venture  upon 
the  soup,  began  to  be  disturbed  at  these  emotions,  and  observed  with 
some  concern,  that  the  poor  gentleman  seemed  to  be  going  into  a  fit; 
when  Peregrine  assured  him  that  these  were  symptoms  of  ecstasy,  and, 
for  further  confirmation,  asked  the  marquis  how  he  found  the  soup.  It 
was  with  infinite  difficulty  that  his  complaisance  could  so  far  master 
his  disgust  as  to  enable  him  to  answer,  "Altogether  excellent,  upon 
my  honor  !  "  And  the  painter  being  certified  of  his  approbation,  lifted 
the  spoon  to  his  mouth  without  scruple;  but  far  from  justifying  the 
eulogium  of  his  taster,  when  this  precious  composition  diffused  itself 
upon  his  palate,  he  seemed  to  be  deprived  of  all  sense  and  motion, 
and  sat  like  the  leaden  statue  of  some  river-god,  with  the  liquor  flow- 
ing out  at  both  sides  of  the  mouth. 

4.  I  fear  I  wrong  the  honorable  men  whose  daggers  have  stabbed 
CiEsar. 

5.  There  is  one  secret  a  woman  can  keep — her  age. 

6.  What  a  beautiful  subject  for  a  speech  !  Water-lilies  and  aquatic 
plants  gemming  the  translucent  crystal,  shells  of  rainbow  brightness, 
a  constant  supply  of  gold  and  silver  fish,  with  the  right  of  angling  se- 
cured to  share-holders.  The  extent  of  the  river  being  necessarily  lim- 
ited, will  render  lying  there  so  select,  so  very  respectable. 

7.  "  Call  that  a  kind  man,  a  man  who  is  away  from  his  family,  and 
never  sends  them  a  farthing  !  Call  that  kindness  !  "  "  Yes,  unremit- 
ting kindness,"  Jerrold  replied. 

8.  O  the  anguish  of  that  thought,  that  we  can  never  atone  to  our 
dead  for  the  stinted  affection  we  gave  them,  for  the  light  answers  we 
returned  to  their  plaints  or  their  pleadings,  for  the  little  reverence  we 
showed  to  that  sacred  human  soul  that  lived  so  close  to  us,  and  was 
the  divinest  thing  God  has  given  us  to  know. 

9.  O  Jerusalem,  Jerusalem,  thou  that  killest  the  prophets,  and  ston- 
est  them  which  are  sent  unto  thee,  how  often  would  I  have  gathered 
thy  children  together,  even  as  a  hen  gathereth  her  chickens  under  her 
wings,  and  ye  would  not ! 

10.  Complaint  is  the  largest  tribute  heaven  receives,  and  the  sln- 
cerest  part  of  our  devotion. 


274  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

11.  Princes  in  their  infancy,  childhood,  and  youth,  are  said  to  dis- 
cover prodigious  parts  and  wit,  to  speak  things  that  surprise  and  as- 
tonish ;  strange,  so  many  hopeful  princes,  so  many  shameful  kings ! 
If  they  happen  to  die  young,  they  would  have  been  prodigies  of  wis- 
dom and  virtue :  if  they  live,  they  are  often  prodigies  indeed,  but  of 
another  sort. 

12.  There  never  was  any  party,  faction,  sect,  or  cabal  whatsoever, 
in  which  the  most  ignorant  were  not  the  most  violent ;  for  a  bee  is  not 
a  busier  animal  than  a  blockhead.  However,  such  instruments  are 
necessary  to  politicians ;  and  perhaps  it  may  be  with  states  as  with 
clocks,  which  must  have  some  dead-weight  hanging  at  them,  to  help 
regulate  the  motion  of  the  finer  and  more  useful  parts. 

13.  In  the  Chapel,  O  ye  students. 

Where  the  boys  come  duly  slow, 
And  the  foot-falls  of  the  freshmen 

Softly  come  and  softly  go ; 
When  the  choristers  are  singing 

In  a  deep  and  solemn  flow, 
Will  you  think  to  "  stamp  "  O  freshmen, 

As  you  did  one  year  ago  ? 

14.  'Tis  pleasant,  sure,  to  see  one's  name  in  print; 
A  book's  a  book,  although  there's  nothing  in  't. 

15.  "Professor,"  said  a  graduate,  at  parting,  "I  am  indebted  to 
you  for  all  I  know."  "  Pray  do  not  mention  such  a  trifle,"  was  the 
not  very  flattering  reply. 

16.  Of  his  simplicity  let  me  record  an  instance  where  a  sad  and 
civil  young  Chinaman  brought  me  certain  shirts  with  most  of  the 
buttons  missing,  and  others  hanging  on  delusively  by  a  single  thread. 
In  a  moment  of  unguarded  irony  I  informed  him  that  unity  would  at 
least  have  been  preserved  if  the  buttons  were  removed  altogether. 
He  smiled  sadly  and  went  away.  I  thought  I  had  hurt  his  feelings, 
until  the  next  week  when  he  Ijrought  me  my  shirts  with  a  look  of 
intelligence,  and  the  buttons  carefully  and  totally  erased. 

17.  This  ambulatory  chapel  of  Bacchus  that  gives  the  colic,  but  nut 
inebriates,  only  ai)peared  at  the  Commencement  holidays,  and  the  lad 
who  bought  of  Lewis  laid  out  his  money  well,  getting  respect  as  well 
as  beer,  three  "sirs"  tu  every  glass, — "Beer,  sir?  yes,  sir;  spruce  or 
ginger,  sir?" 


SPECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE. 


■/3 


1 8.  If  there  was  any  incense  burning  I  could  smell  it,  and  that 
would  be  something.  But  there  is  no  smell  in  our  church,  except  of 
bad  air, — for  there  is  no  provision  for  ventilation  in  the  splendid  and 
costly  edifice.  The  reproduction  of  the  Gothic  is  so  complete  that  the 
builders  even  seem  to  have  brought  over  the  ancient  air  from  one  of 
the  churches  of  the  Middle  Ages, — you  would  declare  it  hadn't  been 
changed  in  two  centuries. 

19.  A  college  professor,  lecturing  on  the  effect  of  the  wind  in  West- 
ern forests,  remarked :  "In  traveling  along  the  road  I  sometimes 
found  the  logs  bound  and  twisted  together  to  such  an  extent  that  a 
mule  could  not  climb  over  them,  so  I  went  round." 

20.  "Third  boy,  what's  a  horse?"  "A  beast,  sir,"  replied  the  boy. 
"So  it  is,"  said  Squeers.  "Ain't  it,  Nickleby  ?"  "I  believe  there  is 
no  doubt  of  that,  sir,"  answered  Nicholas.  "Of  course  there  isn't !" 
said  Squeers.  "A  horse  is  a  quadruped,  and  quadruped's  Latin  for 
beast,  as  everybody  that's  gone  through  the  grammar  knows,  or  else 
where 's  the  use  of  having  grammars  at  all  ? "  "  Where,  indeed !  "  said 
Nicholas,  abstractedly.  "As  you  're  perfect  in  that,"  resumed  Squeers, 
turning  to  the  boy,  "go  and  look  after  luy  horse,  and  rub  him  down 
well,  or  I'll  rub  you  down." 

21.  "  You  must  be  either  a  knave  or  a  fool,"  said  two  lawyers  to  an 
Irishman  sitting  between  them.  "No,  I'm  between  both,"  was  the 
reply. 

22.  Dear,  gentle,  patient,  noble  Nell  was  dead.  Her  little  bird — 
a  poor,  slight  thing  the  pressure  of  a  finger  would  have  crushed — was 
stirring  nimbly  in  its  cage;  and  the  strong  heart  of  its  child  mistress 
was  mute  and  motionless  forever. 


Beauty  and  Sublimity, 

That  form  of  composition  which  concerns  itself  wholly 
with  the  expression  of  the  thought,  is  our  ordinary  prose. 
The  worth  of  its  style  is  in  proportion  to  the  clearness  or 
force  with  which  it  expresses  the  thought.  That  style 
which,  instead  of  attracting  attention  to  itself,  presents 
prominently  the  thought,  is  regarded  as  the  best  style;  yet, 
independent  of  the  thought,  style  has  a  value  peculiarly  its 


2/6  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

own,  and  adds  much  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  idea  it 
conveys.  All  thought  can  not  be  appropriately  expressed 
in  the  same  manner  ;  hence,  the  variety  of  style — a  variety 
as  great  as  the  multitudinous  ideas  it  would  portray.  Lan- 
guage and  grace  of  expression  should  not  soar  above  the 
thought,  neither  should  they  fall  below  it;  there  should  be 
a  perfect  union  of  the  two. 

Beauty. — Beauty  of  expression,  in  its  rarest  form,  shows 
itself  in  poetry,  the  most  artistic  species  of  literature ;  it  is 
not  sought  with  such  anxious  quest  in  prose — prose  which 
does  the  every-day  work  of  our  social  life.  Beauty,  or  ele- 
gance, is  the  highest  and  most  delicate  quality  of  style. 
In  a  writer,  it  is  the  outcome  of  high  culture,  perfect  self- 
possession,  a  beautiful  subject,  and  a  most  complete  mas- 
tery of  it. 

Beauty  of  t/iought  is  essential  to  beauty  of  expression. 
Words  also,  must  be  selected  with  regard  to  beauty  and 
euphony.  The  English  language  affords  the  writer  a  rich- 
ness of  expression  and  a  variety  that  is  not  found  in  any 
other  tongue :  every  passion  and  every  thought  can  be  ut- 
tered in  language  especially  appropriate  to  it.  From  this 
rich  diversity  in  our  vocabulary,  it  happens  that  where  the 
words  are  well  chosen  and  aptly  used,  the  beauty  of  the 
diction  is  at  once  seen,  since  every  kind  of  it  is  set  off  by 
some  other  differing  from  it.  When  the  words  of  a  lan- 
guage are  mainly  euphonicms  or  harsh,  short  or  long,  weak 
or  forcible,  there  can  be  but  little  beauty  arising  from  the 
fitness  in  sound  of  the  word  to  the  idea. 

Iinage)y  conduces  to  beauty  of  expression.  Figures  of 
speech  should  not  be  used  merely  to  adorn  ;  at  the  same 
time  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  image  enlist  wholly  in  the 
service  of  the  thought.     Beautiful  imagery  may  minister  to 


SPECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE. 


277 


our  taste,  gratify  our  craving  for  the  beautiful,  without  neg- 
lecting its  duty  to  the  thought. 

Alliteration  is  consistent  with  elegance.  While  it  de- 
stroys both  the  strength  and  harmony  of  discourse  to  use 
words  that  sound  alike,  it  is  allowable,  even  in  prose,  to 
begin  several  successive  words  with  the  same  letter — and 
this  because  it  is  agreeable  to  the  ear. 

Smoothness  is  an  essential  quality.  Elegance  requires 
that  the  sentence  be  smooth  2inA  fi owing.  This  is  somewhat 
incompatible  with  energy,  which,  impatient  of  long  senten- 
ces, puts  itself  into  the  most  compact  form  to  be  hurled  at 
the  mark.  When  beauty  of  expression  is  sought,  the  sen- 
tence may  be  allowed  to  run  over  long  stretches  without 
stopping,  provided  it  move  smoothly,  leisurely,  and  without 
apparent  effort, — its  parts  not  separated  by  anything  par- 
enthetical. 

RJiythm  contributes  to  elegance  of  expression.  It  need 
not  occur  with  perfect  uniformity,  as  in  the  case  of  poetry ; 
it  may  vary  from  two  to  six  syllables.  It  requires  on  the 
part  of  the  reader  a  rise  and  a  fall  of  the  voice ;  the  parts 
of  the  sentence  are  nicely  balanced,  as  is  frequently  seen  in 
sentences  containing  antitheses. 

Sublimity. — As  a  quality  of  discourse  the  sublime  dif- 
fers from  the  beautiful  in  the  greater  excitement  of  mind 
and  feeling  of  awe  which  accompany  it.  Like  the  beauti- 
ful it  gives  pleasure,  but  the  pleasure  is  too  intense  to  be 
lasting,  while  beauty  is  a  source  of  perpetual  joy. 

A  comparison  bctiveen  sublimity  and  beanty  is  given  in  the 
following  lines  by  Burke:  "In  this  comparison,  there  ap- 
pears a  remarkable  contrast ;  for  sublime  objects  are  vast 
in  their  dimensions,    beautiful  ones   comparatively   small: 


2/8  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

beauty  should  be  smooth  and  pohshed ;  the  great,  rugged 
and  negHgent:  beauty  should  shun  the  right  line,  yet  de- 
viate from  it  insensibly;  the  great,  in  many  cases,  loves  the 
right  line,  and  when  it  deviates,  it  often  makes  a  strong 
deviation ;  beauty  should  not  be  obscure ;  the  great  ought 
to  be  dark  and  gloomy :  beauty  should  be  light  and  deli- 
cate; the  great  ought  to  be  solid  and  even  massive." 

Among  the  various  circumstances  that  may  be  mentioned 
as  producing  a  feeling  of  the  sublime,  are  vastness,  power, 
awfulness,  obscurity,  sound,  and  moral  greatness. 

Vastness  of  dimension  is  a  powerful  cause  of  the  sublime. 
Great  extension,  whether  in  length,  height,  or  depth,  awes 
the  soul  with  the  thought  of  its  own  weakness.  Of  these, 
length  strikes  least ;  a  hundred  yards  of  even  ground  will 
never  produce  such  an  effect  upon  the  mind  as  a  tower  of 
that  altitude.  Height  is,  perhaps,  less  grand  than  depth; 
we  are  more  struck  at  looking  down  from  a  precipice  than 
looking  up  at  an  object  of  equal  height.  Endless  numbers 
and  eternal  duration  fill  the  mind  with  ideas  of  sublimity. 

Power  is  an  indispensable  condition  of  things  truly  sub- 
lime— that  is,  such  power  as  fills  man  with  a  knowledge  of 
his  own  weakness.  It  is  not  that  which  is  subservient  to 
his  ease  or  to  his  pleasure,  but  that  which  he  feels  may  be- 
come the  instrument  of  his  destruction.  Among  natural 
objects  possessing  this  quality  may  be  mentioned  earth- 
quakes, thunder  and  lightning,  volcanoes,  cataracts,  storms 
at  sea,  the  tornado,  and  nearly  all  violent  commotions  of 
the  elements.  Some  of  the  larger  animals,  such  as  the  lion, 
the  tiger,  the  i)antluT,  or  the  rhinoceros,  display  a  power 
and  majesty  that  raise  an  emotion  of  sublimity  in  the  be- 
holder. In  the  book  of  Job  it  is  said  of  the  war-horse: 
"The  glory  of  his  nostrils  is  terrible.  He  paweth  in  the 
\alle\-,  and  rejoiceth  in  his  strength;   he  goeth  on  to  meet 


SPECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE. 


279 


the  armed  men.  He  mocketh  at  fear,  and  is  not  affrighted ; 
neither  turneth  he  back  from  the  sword.  The  quiver  rattleth 
against  him,  the  ghttering  spear  and  the  shield.  He  swal- 
loweth  the  ground  with  fierceness  and  rage ;  neither  be- 
heveth  he  that  it  is  the  sound  of  the  trumpet." 

Aivfiilness  produces  feehngs  of  subhmity.  Darkness, 
soHtude,  and  silence,  under  certain  conditions,  impress  us 
with  intense  awe ;  especially  when  connected  with  some 
apprehension  of  danger.  The  Scriptures  give  the  follow- 
ing sublime  description  of  Jehovah :  "  He  bowed  the  heav- 
ens also,  and  came  down ;  and  darkness  was  under  his  feet. 
He  made  darkness  his  secret  place;  his  pavilion  round  about 
him  were  dark  waters,  and  thick  clouds  of  the  skies." 

Obscurity  alone  does  not  produce  sublimity,  but  it  co- 
operates powerfully  with  other  circumstances  in  producing 
this  feeling.  To  this  circumstance  may  be  attributed  our 
dread  of  ghosts  and  goblins,  of  which  none  can  form  clear 
ideas ;  to  it,  also,  belongs  much  of  the  power  exercised  by 
despotic  governments,  and  by  the  priests  that  serve  in 
heathen  temples.  In  such  governments,  the  chief  is  kept 
as  much  as  may  be  from  the  public  eye ;  in  such  temples, 
the  idol  is  enveloped  in  all  the  obscurity  that  the  darkest 
part  of  the  temple  can  afford.  For  this  purpose,  too,  the 
ancient  Druids  performed  all  their  ceremonies  in  the  bosom 
of  the  darkest  woods,  and  in  the  shade  of  the  oldest  and 
most  spreading  oaks.  Some  of  Milton's  most  sublime  pas- 
sages are  due  to  the  obscurity  with  which  he  has  surrounded 
things  terrible  in  themselves. 

So2tnd  that  is  excessively  loud  is  alone  sufficient  to  over- 
power the  soul,  to  suspend  its  action,  and  to  fill  it  with  the 
most  vivid  conceptions  of  sublimity.  The  noise  of  vast 
cataracts,  raging  storms,  thunder,  or  artillery,  awakes  a 
great  and  awful  sensation  in  the  mind;    the  shouting  of 


280  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

multitudes  has  a  similar  effect.  The  same  effect  is  produced 
by  a  sudden  beginning  or  a  sudden  cessation  of  sound.  A 
single  sound  of  strength,  though  but  of  short  duration,  if 
repeated  after  intervals,  fills  the  mind  with  ideas  of  grand- 
eur: the  striking  of  a  great  clock  in  the  deep  silence  of  the 
night,  the  heavy  stroke  of  a  drum,  repeated  with  pauses, 
the  successive  firing  of  cannon  at  a  distance,  are  illustra- 
tions. 

Moral  Greatness. — Human  actions  strikingly  great  or  no- 
ble never  fail  to  awaken  a  feeling  of  the  sublime. 

When  we  see  a  man  in  some  high  and  critical  situation, 
equal  in  all  respects  to  the  demands  of  the  moment,  supe- 
rior to  passion  and  fear,  ignoring  selfish  interest  and  popu- 
lar opinion,  unmindful  of  dangers,  even  willing  to  face 
death,  we  are  struck  with  a  sense  of  the  sublime :  the  effect 
is  similar  to  that  produced  by  the  grand  objects  in  nature. 
History  is  full  of  these  heroic  actions. 

From  the  foregoing  remarks  some  idea  may  be  formed 
of  those  qualities  which  awaken  feelings  of  the  sublime ;  the 
following  arc  the  most  effective  ways  of  imparting  this  feel- 
ing by  means  of  discourse : 

It  is  of  prime  importance  that  the  subject  be  sublime;  no 
high -.sounding  words  marshaled  in  swelling  periods  can 
supply  ideas  of  grandeur  when  they  are  wanting  in  the 
subject  itself 

There  should  be  a  vivid  conception  of  the  strong  points, 
and  a  concise  and  striking  i)rcsentation  of  them.  Napoleon, 
wishing  to  ins})ire  his  army  in  ICgypt  with  enthusiasm  for 
the  battle,  pointed  to  the  Pyramids,  and  said,  "Thirty  cen- 
turies are  looking  down  upon  you."  How  grandly  these 
wondrous  monuments  of  antiquity,  viewed  in  the  light  of 
the  great  chieftain's  sublime  conception,  must  have  appealed 
to  the  valor  of  those  weary,  suffering  legions!     Not  only 


SPECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE.  28  I 

should  we  seize  strongly  upon  the  few  grand  features  which 
constitute  what  is  sublime  in  an  object,  but  we  should  omit 
all  details  that  are  in  themselves  belittluig. 

Simplicity  and  conciseness  of  expression  are  essential  to  the 
sublime  in  writing.  In  sentences  which  men  generally  re- 
gard as  sublime,  the  words  are  few  and  the  construction 
plain.  Many  of  the  sayings  and  most  of  the  miracles  of 
our  Lord,  as  recorded  in  the  Gospels,  are  expressed  with 
the  utmost  simplicity  and  plainness,  yet  they  are  in  the 
highest  degree  sublime.  For  example,  in  stilling  the  tem- 
pest he  commanded  the  waves  with  the  words,  ' '  Peace,  be 
still."  In  healing  the  leper,  he  merely  said  to  him,  "Be 
thou  clean:  and  immediately  his  leprosy  was  cleansed." 
In  raising  the  dead,  the  record  is  simply,  "Lazarus,  come 
forth:  and  he  that  was  dead  came  forth."  When  the  dis- 
ciples were  in  peril  at  sea,  Jesus  came  unto  them,  and 
quieted  their  fears  with  the  words,  "It  is  I,  be  not  afraid." 
To  the  sinner  whose  guilt  placed  her  beyond  the  pale  of 
human  mercy,  he  said,  "Neither  do  I  condemn  thee:  go, 
and  sin  no  more." 

His  claims  to  authority  as  a  teacher  come  from  God,  are 
put  forth  in  few  and  simple  words,  but  with  a  majesty  of 
expression  that  forced  even  his  enemies  to  say,  "Never 
man  spake  like  this  man." 

EXERCISE  LXXVI. 

Direction.  —  Study  these  sentences,  point  out  those  possessing  beauty  or 
elegance,  those  possessing  sublimity,  and  tell  what  gives  them  this  quality: 

I.  From  his  lip  like  balm,  the  psalmody  of  Israel's  king  in  Hebrew 
streaming,  floods  his  soul  with  joy,  as  though  the  solemn  warbling 
bird  of  night  sang  peace,  while  every  cadence  of  its  song  dropped 
manna — like  its  life's  own  nutriment.  And  as  the  nightingale,  of 
russet  plumage,  sings,  alone  in  darkness  sown  with  stars  of  God,  so 

Rliet.— 24. 


282  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

sings,  'mid  shadows  deeper  than  the  night,  sown  hke  the  niglit,  w  ith 
visions  grand  as  stars,  the  philomel  of  ages. 

2.  We  do  not  make  our  thoughts;  they  grow  in  us  hke  grain  in 
wood ;  the  growth  is  of  the  skies,  which  are  of  nature — nature  is  of 
God. 

3.  Piety  practiced  in  sohtude,  hke  the  flower  that  blooms  in  the 
desert,  may  give  its  fragrance  to  the  winds  of  heaven,  and  dehght 
those  unembodied  spirits  tliat  survey  the  works  of  God  and  the  ac- 
tions of  men :  but  it  bestows  no  assistance  upon  earthly  beings,  and, 
however  free  from  taints  of  impurity,  yet  wants  the  sacred  splendor 
of  beneficence. 

4.  An  image  was  before  mine  eyes,  there  was  a  silence,  and  I 
heard  a  voice  saying,  "Shall  mortal  man  be  more  just  than  God.? 
Shall  a  man  be  more  pure  than  his  Maker?" 

5.  There  is  a  charm  connected  with  mountains,  so  powerful  that 
the  merest  mention  of  them,  the  merest  sketch  of  their  magnificent 
features,  kindles  the  imagination,  and  carries  the  spirit  at  once  into 
the  bosom  of  their  enchanted  regions.  How  the  mind  is  filled  with 
their  vast  solitude!  how  the  inward  eye  is  fixed  on  their  silent,  their 
sublime,  their  everlasting,  peaks!  How  our  heart  bounds  to  the  music 
of  their  solitary  cries,  to  the  tinkling  of  their  gushing  rills,  to  the 
sound  of  their  cataracts!  How  inspiriting  are  the  odors  that  breathe 
from  the  upland  turf,  from  the  rock-hung  flower,  from  the  hoary  and 
solemn  pine !  how  beautiful  are  those  lights  and  shadows  thrown 
abroad,  and  that  fine,  transparent  haze  which  is  diffused  over  the  val- 
leys and  lower  slopes,  as  over  a  vast,  inimitable  picture ! 

6.  If  ever,  in  autumn,  a  pensiveness  falls  upon  us  as  the  leaves 
drift  by  in  their  fading,  may  we  not  wisely  look  up  in  hope  to  their 
mighty  monuments.''  Behold  how  fair,  how  far  prolonged  in  arch  and 
aisle,  the  avenues  of  the  valley,  the  fringes  of  the  hills !  So  stately — 
so  eternal;  the  joy  of  man,  the  comfort  of  all  living  creatures,  the 
glory  of  the  earth — they  are  but  the  monuments  of  those  poor  leaves 
that  Hit  faintly  past  us  to  die. 

7.  Unfading  hope!  when  life's  last  embers  burn. 
When  soul  to  soul,  and  dust  to  dust  return. 
Heaven  to  thy  charge  resigns  the  awful  hour! 
Oh,  then  thy  kingdom  comes,  immortal  power! 

8.  When  dead  of  winter  conies,  how  wondrous  look  the  hills  in 
their  white  robes!     The  round  red   hall  of  the  sun  looks  throu''b.  llie 


SPECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE.  283 

frosty  steam.  The  far-off  firth  gleams  strange  and  ghostly,  with  a 
sense  of  mysterious  distance.  The  mountain  loch  is  a  sheet  of  blue, 
on  which  you  may  disport  in  perfect  solitude  from  morn  to  night, 
with  the  hills  white  on  all  sides,  save  where  the  broken  snow  shows 
the  rusted  leaves  of  the  withered  bracken. 

9.  A  ruined  character  is  as  picturesque  as  a  ruined  castle.  There 
are  dark  abysses  and  yawning  gulfs  in  the  human  heart,  which  can 
be  rendered  passable  only  by  bridging  them  over  with  iron  nerves 
and  sinews. 

10.  The  last  stick  on  her  andirons  snaps  asunder,  and  falls  outward. 
Two  faintly  smoking  brands  stand  there.  Grandfather  lays  them  to- 
gether, and  they  flame  up;  the  two  smokes  are  one  united  flame. 
"  Even  so  let  it  be  in  heaven,"  says  grandfather. 

11.  When  the  sun  rose  on  Memnon,  it  was  fabled  to  have  uttered 
melodious  noises ;  but  what  were  the  rude  twangings  of  that  huge, 
grotesque  statue,  compared  with  the  soul's  response  when  God  rises 
upon  it,  and  every  part,  like  a  vibrating  chord,  sounds  forth,  to  his 
touch,  its  joy  and  worship  ? 

12.  There  have  been  souls  dedicated  to  heaven  from  childhood, 
and  guarded  by  good  angels  as  sweet  seclusions  for  holy  thoughts, 
and  prayers,  and  all  good  purposes,  wherein  pious  wishes  dwelt  like 
nuns,  and  every  image  was  a  saint ;  and  yet  in  life's  vicissitudes,  by 
the  treachery  of  occasion,  by  the  thronging  passions  of  great  cities,  have 
become  soiled  and  sinful. 

13.  One  by  one  the  objects  of  our  affection  depart  from  us.  But 
our  affections  remain,  and  like  vines  stretch  forth  their  broken,  wounded 
tendrils  for  support.  The  bleeding  heart  needs  a  balm  to  heal  it;  and 
there  is  none  but  the  love  of  its  kind, — none  but  the  affection  of  a  hu- 
man heart. 

14.  Ever  as  that  dreaded  day  drew  nearer,  more  frequent  was  the 
haze  in  our  eyes  ;  and  in  our  blindness  we  knew  not  that  such  tears 
ought  to  have  been  far  more  rueful  still,  for  that  he  then  lay  under 
orders  for  a  longer  and  more  lamentable  voyage — a  voyage  over  a 
narrow  strait  to  the  eternal  shore. 

15.  The  winds  with  wonder  whist,  smoothly  the  waters  kissed. 

16.  And  the  sails  did  sigh  like  sedge. 

17.  There  are  no  fields  of  amaranth  on  this  side  of  the  grave  ;  there 
are  no  voices,  O  Rhodope,  that  are  not  soon  mute,  however  tuneful; 
there  is  no  name,  with  whatever  emphasis  of  passionate  love  repeated, 
of  which  the  echo  is  not  fiint  at  last. 


284  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

18.  By  the  deeper  base  of  its  hoarse  organ,  the  sea  is  now  playing 
upon  its  lowest  stops,  and  the  tide  is  down.  Hear !  How  it  rushes  in 
beneath  the  rocks,  broken  and  stilled  in  its  tortuous  way,  till  it  ends 
with  a  washing  and  dull  hiss  among  the  sea-weed,  and,  like  a  myriad 
of  small  tinkling  bells,  the  dripping  from  the  crags  is  audible. 

19.  And  I  heard  as  it  were  the  voice  of  a  great  multitude,  and  as 
the  voice  of  many  waters,  and  as  the  voice  of  mighty  thunderings,  say- 
ing, Alleluia:  for  the  Lord  God  Omnipotent  reigneth. 

20.  Far  along 

From  peak  to  peak  the  rattling  crags  among, 
Leaps  the  live  thunder!  not  from  one  lone  cloud, 
But  every  mountain  now  hath  found  a  tongue, 
And  Jura  answers  through  her  misty  shroud, 
Back  to  the  joyous  Alps,  who  call  to  her  aloud  ! 


EXTR.\CTS    FOR   THE   CRITICAL   StUDV   OF   StYLE. 

From  the  peculiarity  of  thought  and  expression  belong- 
ing to  every  writer,  there  is  a  certain  character  imprinted 
on  his  style,  which  may  be  denominated  his  juanncr,  com- 
monly expressed  by  such  general  terms  as  st/vtig,  diy,  si?n- 
plc,  affected,  or  the  like. 

Different  subjects  require  to  be  treated  in  different  sorts 
of  style.  A  treatise  on  philosophy,  for  iiTstance,  ought  not 
to  be  composed  in  the  same  style  as  an  oration.  Differ- 
ent parts  of  the  same  composition  require  also  a  variation 
in  the  style  and  manner;  some  parts  admit  of  more  orna- 
ment and  require  more  warmth  than  others, which  appeal 
specially  to  the  understanding. 

Where  imagery  abounds,  rich  and  gaud)'  in  proportion 
to  the  subject,  we  call  the  sty\c  fion'd.  A  style  possessing 
all  the  \irtues  of  ornament,  without  any  of  its  excesses  or 
defects,   we  call  elegant.      If  the  style  is  barren  of  imagery, 


SPECIAL  PR0I'ERTIP:S  of  STYl-E.  285 

and  is  merely  clear,  precise,  and  lively,  we  call  \t  plain ;  if 
matter-of-fact,  and  aiming  only  to  be  understood,  it  is  dry. 
The 'expression  of  much  in  few  words  makes  the  style 
concise;  a  lavish  use  of  words  and  circumstance  makes  it 
diffuse ;  the  free  use  of  the  idioms  of  the  language  makes 
it  idiomatic;  the  prevalence  of  short,  pithy  sentences  makes 
it  epigraviniatic.  A  writer  who  expresses  himself  in  a  di- 
rect and  easy  manner,  and  in  language  intelligible  to  all, 
uses  a  simple  style ;  one  who  uses  pedantic  terms,  stiffly 
and  formally  arranged,  has  an  affected  style;  one  whose 
expression  is  too  high-sounding  for  the  thought,  uses  a 
bombastic  style.  If  any  one  figure,  as  the  metaphor  or 
antithesis,  is  in  excess,  the  style  is  named  from  it,  met- 
aphorical  or  antithetical ;  if  the  common  type  of  sentence 
is  the  period,  the  style  {■-,  periodic ;  if  climax  abounds,  it  is 
climacteric.  Each  of  the  forms  classified  under  wit,  when 
predominant,  gives  its  name  to  the  style,  as  satirical,  Jin- 
moroiis,  etc.  Even  great  writers  give  their  names  to  their 
style ;  as,  Miltonic,  Shakesperian,  Addisonian,  JoJinsonia)i. 

The  foJinsonian  style,  as  illustrated  by  Dr.  Johnson, 
abounds  in  long  and  sonorous  terms  and  elaborately  bal- 
anced periods.  It  expresses  nothing  with  simplicity,  or 
with  that  ease  which  indicates  a  sentiment  coming  natural 
and  warm  from  the  heart. 

The  Addisonian  style,  as  illustrated  by  Addison,  is  the 
highest,  most  correct  and  ornamental  degree  of  the  simple 
manner. 

The  Shakesperian  style  is  best  understood  by  a  study  of 
Shakespeare's  plays. 

The  Miltonic  style,  as  illustrated  by  Milton,  is  sublime  in 
the  highest  degree;  yet  it  is  serious  and  simple  in  all  its 
grandeur. 

The  following  prose  extracts  are  given  for  minute  study. 


286  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Note  the  spirit  in  which  each  passage  was  written  and  the 
style  which  characterizes  it.  In  particular,  note  the  selec- 
tion and  placing  of  the  words,  the  cast  of  the  sentences, 
their  perspicuity,  the  imagery — its  kinds  and  its  offices — 
the  observation  of  men  and  nature  revealed  by  each  extract, 
the  thought  and  truth  of  the  observation,  and  the  character 
of  the  author  as  disclosed  in  the  passage  selected : 

I  am  always  very  well  pleased  with  a  country  Sunday,  and  think, 
if  keeping  holy  the  seventh  day  were  only  a  human  institution,  it 
would  be  the  best  method  that  could  have  been  thought  of  for  the 
polishing  and  civilizing  of  mankind.  It  is  certain  the  country  people 
would  soon  degenerate  into  a  kind  of  savages  and  barbarians,  were 
there  not  such  frequent  returns  of  a  stated  time  in  which  the  whole 
village  meet  together  with  their  best  faces,  and  in  their  cleanliest 
habits,  to  converse  with  one  another  upon  indifferent  subjects,  hear 
their  duties  explained  to  them,  and  join  together  in  adoration  of  the 
Supreme  Being.  Sunday  clears  away  the  rust  of  the  whole  week,  not 
only  as  it  refreshes  in  their  minds  the  notions  of  religion,  but  as  it 
puts  both  the  sexes  upon  appearing  in  their  most  agreeable  forms,  and 
exerting  all  such  qualities  as  are  apt  to  give  them  a  figure  in  the  eye 
of  the  village.  A  country  fellow  distinguishes  himself  as  much  in  the 
church-yard,  as  a  citizen  does  upon  the  change,  the  whole  parish  poli- 
tics being  generally  discussed  in  that  place  either  after  sermon  or 
before  the  bell  rings. — Addison. 

"Now  lay  me  down,"  he  said;  "  and,  Floy,  come  close  to  me  and 
let  me  see  youl"  Sister  and  brother  wound  their  arms  around  each 
other,  and  the  golden  light  came  streaming  in  and  fell  upon  them, 
locked  together.  "  How  fast  the  river  runs  between  its  green  banks 
and  the  rushes,  Floy  !  But  it's  very  near  the  sea.  I  hear  the  waves! 
They  always  said  so."  Presently  he  told  her  that  the  motion  of  the 
boat  upon  the  stream  was  lulling  him  to  rest.  How  green  the  banks 
were  now !  how  bright  the  flowers  growing  on  them  !  and  how  tall 
the  rushes  !  Now  the  boat  was  out  at  sea,  but  gliding  smoothly  on  ; 
and  now  there  was  a  shore  before  him.  Who  stood  on  the  bank  !  He 
put  his  hands  together,  as  he  had  been  used  to  do  at  his  prayers.  He 
did  not  remove  his  arms  to  do  it ;  but  they  saw  him  fold  them  so,  be- 
hind her  neck.    "Mamma  is  like  you,  Floy:  I  know  her  by  her  face! 


SPECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE.  28/ 

Rut  tell  them  that  the  print  upon  the  stairs  at  school  is  not  divine 
enough.     The  light  about  the  head  is  shining  on  me  as  I  go  ! " 

The  golden  ripple  on  the  wall  came  back  again,  and  nothing  else 
stirred  in  the  room.  The  old,  old  fashion !  The  fashion  that  came  in 
with  our  first  garments,  and  will  last  unchanged  until  our  race  has 
run  its  course,  and  the  wide  firmament  is  rolled  up  like  a  scroll.  The 
old,  old  fashion, — Death  !  Oh,  thank  God,  all  who  see  it,  for  that 
older  fashion  yet,  of  Immortality!  And  look  upon  us,  angels  of 
young  children,  with  regards  not  quite  estranged  when  the  swift  river 
bears  us  to  the  ocean! — Chas.  Dickens. 

At  last  Becky's  kindness  and  attention  to  the  chief  of  her  hus- 
band's family  were  destined  to  meet  with  an  exceeding  great  reward  ; 
a  reward  which,  though  certainly  somewhat  unsubstantial,  the  little 
woman  coveted  with  greater  eagerness  than  more  positive  benefits. 
If  she  did  not  wish  to  lead  a  virtuous  life,  at  least  she  desired  to  enjoy 
a  character  for  virtue,  and  we  know  that  no  lady  in  the  genteel  world 
can  possess  this  desideratum  until  she  has  put  on  a  train  and  feathers, 
and  has  been  presented  to  her  Sovereign  at  Court.  From  that  august 
interview  they  come  out  stamped  as  honest  women.  The  Lord 
Chamberlain  gives  them  a  certificate  of  virtue.  And  as  dubious 
goods  or  letters  are  passed  through  an  oven  at  quarantine,  sprinkled 
with  aromatic  vinegar,  and  then  pronounced  clean — many  a  lady 
whose  reputation  would  be  doubtful  otherwise  and  liable  to  give  in- 
fection, passes  through  the  wholesome  ordeal  of  the  Royal  presence, 
and  issues  from  it  free  from  all  taint. —  Thackeray. 

I  have  forgotten  whether  the  song  of  the  cricket  be  not  as  early  a 
token  of  autumn's  approach  as  any  other — that  song  which  may  be 
called  an  audible  stillness  ;  for  though  very  loud  and  heard  afar,  yet 
the  mind  does  not  take  note  of  it  as  a  sound,  so  completely  is  its  indi- 
vidual existence  merged  among  the  accompanying  characteristics  of 
the  season.  Alas  for  the  pleasant  summer  time !  In  August  the  grass 
is  still  verdant  on  the  hills  and  in  the  valleys ;  the  foliage  of  the  trees 
is  as  dense  as  ever  and  as  green ;  the  flowers  gleam  forth  in  richer 
abundance  along  the  margin  of  the  river  and  by  the  stone  walls  and 
deep  among  the  woods ;  the  days,  too,  are  as  fervid  now  as  they  were 
a  month  ago ;  and  yet,  in  every  breath  of  wind  and  in  every  beam  of 
sunshine  we  hear  the  whispered  farewell  and  behold  the  parting  smile 
of  a  dear  friend.  There  is  a  coolness  amid  all  the  heat,  a  mildness 
in  the  blazing  noon.     Not  a  breeze  can  stir  but  it  thrills  us  with  the 


288  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

breath  of  autumn.  A  pensive  glory  is  seen  in  the  far,  golden  gleams, 
among  the  shadows  of  the  trees.  The  flowers — even  the  brightest  of 
them,  and  they  are  the  most  gorgeous  of  the  year — have  this  gentle 
sadness  wedded  to  their  pomp,  and  typify  the  character  of  the  deli- 
cious time  each  within  itself.  The  brilliant  cardinal  flower  has  never 
seemed  gay  to  me. — yV.  Hawthorne. 

[Candle-light]  is  our  own  peculiar  and  household  planet.  Want- 
ing it,  what  savage,  unsocial  nights  must  our  ancestors  have  spent, 
wintering  in  caves  and  unillumined  fastnesses  !  They  must  have  lain 
about  and  grumbled  at  one  another  in  the  dark.  What  repartees 
could  have  passed,  when  you  must  have  felt  about  for  a  smile,  and 
handled  a  neighbor's  cheek  to  be  sure  that  he  understood  it?  This 
accounts  for  the  seriousness  of  the  elder  poetry  ****** 
Jokes  came  in  with  candles. —  Chas.  Lamb. 

This  golden  image,  high  by  measureless  cubits,  set  up  where  your 
green  fields  of  England  are  furnace-burnt  into  the  likeness  of  the 
plain  of  Dura:  this  idol  forbidden  to  us,  first  of  all  idols,  by  our  own 
master  and  faith ;  forbidden  to  us  also  by  every  human  lip  that  has 
ever,  in  any  age  or  people,  been  accounted  of  as  able  to  speak  ac- 
cording to  the  purposes  of  God.  Continue  to  make  that  forbidden 
duty  your  principal  one,  and  soon  no  more  ait,  no  more  science,  no 
more  pleasure  will  be  possible.  Catastrophe  will  come;  or,  worse 
than  catastrophe,  slow  moldering  and  withering  into  Hades.  But  if 
you  can  fix  some  conception  of  a  true  human  state  of  life  to  be  striven 
for — life  for  all  men  as  for  yourself — if  you  can  determine  some  hon- 
est and  simple  order  of  existence ;  following  those  trodden  ways  of 
wisdom,  which  are  pleasantness,  and  seeking  her  quiet  and  with- 
drawn paths,  which  are  peace; — then,  and  so  sanctifying  wealth  into 
"commonwealth,"  all  your  art,  your  literature,  your  daily  labors, 
your  domestic  affection,  and  citizen's  duty  will  join  and  iwcrease  into 
one  magnificent  harmony.  You  will  know  then  how  to  build,  well 
enough;  you  will  build  with  stone  well,  but  with  flesh  better;  temples 
not  made  with  hands,  but  riveted  of  hearts;  and  that  kind  of  marble, 
crimson-veined,  is  indeed  eternal. — John  Ruskin. 

There  is  no  evil  that  we  can  not  either  face  or  fly  from,  but  the 
consciousness  of  duty  disregarded.  A  sense  of  duty  pursues  us  ever. 
It  is  omnipresent,  like  the  Deity.  If  we  take  to  ourselves  the  wings 
of  the  morning,  and  dwell  in  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  sea,  duty 


SPECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE.  289 

performed  or  duty  violated  is  still  with  us,  for  our  happiness  or  our 
misery.  If  we  say,  the  darkness  shall  cover  us — in  the  darkness,  as 
in  the  light,  our  obligations  are  yet  with  us.  We  can  not  escape  their 
power,  nor  fly  from  their  presence.  They  are  with  us  in  this  life,  will 
be  with  us  at  its  close;  and  in  that  scene  of  inconceivable  solemnity 
which  yet  lies  further  onward,  we  shall  still  find  ourselves  surrounded 
by  the  consciousness  of  duty,  to  pain  us  wherever  it  has  been  violated, 
and  to  console  us  so  far  as  God  may  have  given  us  grace  to  perform 
it. —  Webster. 

He  was  an  old  bachelor,  of  a  small  independent  income,  which, 
by  careful  management,  was  sufficient  for  all  his  wants.  He  re- 
volved through  the  family  system  like  a  vagrant  comet  in  its  orbit; 
sometimes  visiting  one  branch,  and  sometimes  another  quite  remote ; 
as  is  often  the  case  with  gentlemen  of  extensive  connections  and 
small  fortunes  in  England.  He  had  a  chirping,  buoyant  disposition, 
always  enjoying  the  present  moment ;  and  his  frequent  change  of 
scene  and  company  prevented  his  acquiring  those  rusty,  unaccommo- 
dating habits  with  which  old  bachelors  are  so  uncharitably  charged. 
He  was  a  complete  family  chronicle,  being  versed  in  the  genealogy, 
history,  and  intermarriages  of  the  whole  house  of  Bracebridge,  which 
made  him  a  great  favorite  with  the  old  folks ;  he  was  the  beau  of  all 
the  elder  ladies  and  superannuated  spinsters,  among  whom  he  was 
habitually  considered  rather  a  young  fellow ;  and  he  was  master  of 
the  revels  among  the  children ;  so  that  there  was  not  a  more  popular 
being  in  the  sphere  in  which  he  moved  than  Mr.  Simon  Bracebridge. 
Of  late  years  he  had  resided  almost  entirely  with  the  squire,  to  whom 
he  had  become  a  factotum,  and  whom  he  particularly  delighted  by 
jumping  with  his  humor  in  respect  of  old  times,  and  by  having  a 
scrap  of  song  to  suit  every  occasion.  We  had  presently  a  specimen 
of  his  last  mentioned  talent,  for  no  sooner  was  supper  removed,  and 
spiced  wines  and  other  beverages  peculiar  to  the  season  introduced, 
than  Master  Simon  was  called  on  for  a  good  old  Christmas  song. 
He  bethought  himself  for  a  moment,  and  then,  wdth  a  sparkle  of  the 
"ve,  and  a  voice  that  was  by  no  means  bad,  except  that  it  ran  occa- 
sionally into  a  falsetto,  like  the  notes  of  a  split  reed,  he  quavered 
forth  a  quaint  old  ditty. —  W.  Irving. 

When  the  inordinate  hopes  of  youth,  which  provoke  their  own  dis- 
appointment, have  been  sobered    down   by  longer  experience  and 

Rhet.— 25. 


290  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

more  extended  views — when  the  keen  contentions  and  eager  rivalries 
which  employed  our  riper  years  have  expired  or  been  abandoned — 
when  we  have  seen,  year  after  year,  the  objects  of  our  fiercest  hos- 
tility and  of  our  fondest  affections  lie  down  together  in  the  hallowed 
peace  of  the  grave — when  ordinary  pleasures  and  amusements  begin 
to  be  insipid,  and  the  gay  derision  which  seasoned  them  to  appear 
flat  and  importunate — when  we  reflect  how  often  we  have  mourned 
and  been  comforted,  what  opposite  opinions  we  have  successively 
maintained  and  abandoned,  to  what  inconsistent  habits  we  have 
gradually  been  formed,  and  how  frequently  the  objects  of  our  pride 
have  proved  the  sources  of  our  shame, — we  are  naturally  led  to  recur 
to  the  days  of  our  childhood,  and  to  retrace  the  whole  of  our  career, 
and  that  of  our  contemporaries,  with  feelings  of  far  greater  humility 
and  indulgence  than  those  by  which  it  had  been  accompanied ;  to 
think  all  vain  but  affection  and  honor,  the  simplest  and  cheapest 
])leasures  the  truest  and  most  precious,  and  generosity  of  sentiment 
the  only  mental  superiority  which  ought  either  to  be  wished  for  or 
admitted. — Jtlff'>'0'- 

Now,  while  I  was  gazing  upon  all  these  things,  I  turned  my  head 
to  look  back,  and  saw  Ignorance  come  up  to  the  river  side ;  but  he 
soon  got  over,  and  that  without  half  the  difficulty  which  the  other  two 
men  met  with.  For  it  happened  that  there  was  then  in  that  place 
one  Vain  Hope,  a  ferryman,  that  with  his  boat  helped  him  over;  so 
he,  as  the  others,  I  saw,  did  ascend  the  hill  to  come  up  to  the  gate, 
only  he  came  alone ;  neither  did  any  man  meet  him  with  the  least 
encouragement.  When  he  was  come  up  to  the  gate,  he  looked  up  to 
the  writing  that  was  above,  and  then  began  to  knock,  supposing  that 
entrance  should  have  been  quickly  administered  to  him  ;  but  he  was 
asked  by  the  men  that  looked  over  the  top  of  the  gate,  "Whence 
come  you,  and  what  would  you  have?"  He  answered,  "I  have  eat 
and  drank  in  the  presence  of  the  King,  and  He  has  taught  in  our 
streets."  Then  they  asked  for  his  certificate,  that  they  might  go  in 
and  show  it  to  the  King ;  so  he  fumbled  in  his  bosom  for  one,  and 
found  none.  Then  said  they,  "You  have  none!  "but  the  man  an- 
swered never  a  word.  So  they  told  the  King,  but  he  would  not  come 
down  to  see  him,  but  commanded  the  two  shining  ones  that  con- 
ducted Christian  and  Hopeful  to  the  city  to  go  out  and  take  Igno- 
rance, and  bind  him  hand  and  foot,  and  have  him  away.  Then  they 
took  him  up  and  carried  him  through  the  air  to  the  door  that  I  saw 


SPECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE. 


291 


on  the  side  of  the  hill,  and  put  him  in  there.  Then  I  saw  that  there 
was  a  way  to  hell  even  from  the  gates  of  heaven,  as  well  as  from  the 
City  of  Destruction. — Johfi  Bunyaft. 

He  who  destroys  a  good  book  kills  reason  itself,  kills  the  image  of 
God,  as  it  were,  in  the  eye.  Many  a  man  lives  a  burden  to  the  earth ; 
but  a  good  book  is  the  precious  life-blood  of  a  master  spirit,  embalmed 
and  treasured  up  on  purpose  to  a  life  beyond  life.  It  is  true  no  age 
can  restore  a  life  whereof,  perhaps,  there  is  no  great  loss ;  and  revolu- 
tions of  ages  do  not  oft  recover  the  loss  of  a  rejected  truth,  for  the  want 
of  which  whole  nations  fare  the  worse.  We  should  be  wary,  there- 
fore, what  persecution  we  raise  against  the  living  labors  of  public  men ; 
how  we  spill  that  seasoned  life  of  man,  preserved  and  stored  up  in 
books;  since  we  see  a  kind  of  homicide  may  thus  be  committed, 
sometimes  a  martyrdom ;  and  if  it  extend  to  the  whole  impression,  a 
kind  of  massacre,  whereof  the  execution  ends  not  in  the  slaying  of  an 
elemental  life,  but  strikes  at  that  ethereal  and  sift  essence,  the  breath 
of  reason  itself, — slays  an  immortality  rather  than  a  life. — Mi/fon. 

I  can  not,  my  lords,  I  will  not  join  in  congratulation  on  misfortune 
and  disgrace.  This,  my  lords,  is  a  perilous  and  tremendous  moment; 
it  is  not  a  time  for  adulation  ;  the  smoothness  of  flattery  can  not  save 
us  in  this  rugged  and  awful  crisis.  It  is  now  necessary  to  instruct  the 
throne  in  the  language  of  truth.  We  must,  if  possible,  dispel  the  de- 
lusion and  darkness  which  envelope  it,  and  display,  in  its  full  danger 
and  genuine  colors,  the  ruin  which  is  brought  to  our  doors.  Can  min- 
isters still  presume  to  expect  support  in  their  infatuation  ?  Can  parlia- 
ment be  so  dead  to  their  dignity  and  duty,  as  to  give  their  support 
to  measures  thus  obtruded  and  forced  upon  them ;  measures,  my  lords, 
which  have  reduced  this  late  flourishing  empire  to  scorn  and  contempt? 
But  yesterday,  and  England  might  have  stood  against  the  world  :  now, 
none  so  poor  to  do  her  reverence !  The  people  whom  we  at  first 
despised  as  rebels,  but  whom  we  now  acknowledge  as  enemies,  are 
abetted  against  you,  supplied  with  every  military  store,  have  their  in- 
terest consulted,  and  their  embassadors  entertained  by  your  inveter- 
ate enemy ;  and  ministers  do  not  and  dare  not  interpose  with  dignity 
or  effect.  The  desperate  state  of  our  army  abroad  is  in  part  known. 
No  man  more  highly  esteems  and  honors  the  English  troops  than  t 
do;  I  know  their  virtues  and  their  valor;  I  know  they  can  achieve 
anything  but  impossibihties.  You  can  not,  my  lords,  you  can  nor 
conquer  America. — Earl  of  Chatham. 


292  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

My  hold  of  the  colonies  is  in  the  close  affection  which  grows  from 
common  names,  from  kindred  blood,  from  similar  privileges,  and  equal 
protection.  These  are  ties  which,  though  light  as  air,  are  as  strong 
as  links  of  iron.  Let  the  colonies  always  keep  the  idea  of  their  civil 
rights  associated  with  your  government ;  they  will  cling  and  grap- 
])le  to  you  ;  and  no  force  under  heaven  will  be  of  power  to  tear 
them  from  their  allegiance.  But  let  it  be  once  understood  that  your 
government  may  be  one  thing  and  their  privileges  another ;  that  these 
two  things  may  exist  without  any  mutual  relation,  the  cement  is  gone 
— the  cohesion  is  loosened — and  everything  hastens  to  decay  and  dis- 
solution. As  long  as  you  have  the  wisdom  to  keep  the  sovereign  au- 
thority of  this  country  as  the  sanctuary  of  liberty,  the  sacred  temple 
consecrated  to  our  common  faith,  wherever  the  chosen  race  and  sons 
of  England  worship  freedom,  they  will  turn  their  faces  towards  you. 
The  more  they  multiply,  the  more  friends  you  will  have ;  the  more 
ardently  they  love  liberty,  the  more  perfect  will  be  their  obedience. 
Slavery  they  can  have  anywhere.  It  is  a  weed  that  grows  in  every 
soil.  They  may  have  it  from  Spain,  they  may  have  it  from  Prussia; 
but  until  you  become  lost  to  all  feeling  of  your  true  interest  and  your 
natural  dignity,  freedom  they  can  have  from  none  but  you.  This  is 
the  commodity  of  price,  of  which  you  have  the  monopoly.  This  is 
the  true  act  of  navigation,  which  binds  you  to  the  commerce  of  the 
colonies,  and  through  them  secures  to  you  the  wealth  of  the  world. 
Deny  them  this  participation  of  freedom,  and  you  break  that  sole  bond 
which  originally  made,  and  must  still  preserve,  the  unity  of  the  em- 
pire.— Ed  Dili  ltd  Burke. 

I  would  have  a  woman  as  true  as  Death.  At  the  first  real  lie  which 
works  from  the  heart  outward,  she  should  be  tenderly  chloroformed 
into  a  better  world,  where  she  can  have  an  angel  for  a  governess,  and 
feed  on  strange  fruits  which  will  make  her  all  over  again,  even  to  her 
bones  and  marrow.  Proud  she  may  be,  in  the  sense  of  respecting 
herself;  but  pride,  in  the  sense  of  contemning  others  less  gifted  than 
herself,  deserves  the  two  lowest  circles  of  a  vulgar  woman's  Inferno, 
where  the  punishments  are  Small-pox  and  Bankruptcy.  She  who 
nips  off  the  end  of  a  brittle  courtesy,  as  one  breaks  the  tip  of  an  icicle, 
to  bestow  upon  those  whom  she  ought  cordially  and  kindly  to  recog- 
nize, proclaims  the  fact  that  she  comes  not  merely  of  low  blood,  but 
of  bad  blood.  Consciousness  of  unquestioned  position  makes  people 
gracious  in  a  proper  measure  to  all ;  but,  if  a  woman  puts  on  airs  with 


SPECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE.  293 

her  real  equals,  she  has  something  about  herself  or  her  family  she  is 
ashamed  of,  or  ought  to  be.  Better  too  few  words  from  the  woman 
we  love,  than  too  many  ;  while  she  is  silent,  Nature  is  working  for 
her;  while  she  talks,  she  is  working  for  herself.  Love  is  sparingly 
soluble  in  the  words  of  men  ;  therefore  they  speak  much  of  it ;  but 
one  syllable  of  woman's  speech  can  dissolve  more  of  it  than  a  man's 
heart  can  hold. —  O.  IV.  Holmes. 

In  passing  judgment  upon  the  characters  of  men,  we  ought  to  try 
them  by  the  principles  and  maxims  of  their  own  age,  not  by  those  of 
another ;  for  although  virtue  and  vice  are  at  all  times  the  same,  man- 
ners and  customs  vary  continually.  Some  parts  of  Luther's  behavior, 
which  appear  to  us  most  culpable,  gave  no  disgust  to  his  contempora- 
ries. It  was  even  by  some  of  those  qualities,  which  we  are  now  apt 
to  blame,  that  he  was  fitted  for  accomplishing  the  great  work  which 
he  undertook.  To  arouse  mankind,  when  sunk  in  ignorance  or  su- 
perstition, and  to  encounter  the  rage  of  bigotry,  armed  with  power, 
required  the  utmost  vehemence  of  zeal,  as  well  as  a  temper  daring  to 
excess.  A  gentle  call  would  neither  have  reached  nor  have  excited 
those  to  whom  it  was  addressed.  A  spirit  more  amiable,  but  less  vig- 
orous than  Luther's,  would  have  shrunk  back  from  the  dangers  which 
he  braved  and  surmounted. — Robertsoji. 

According  to  the  tradition  of  his  companions,  Mohammed  was  dis- 
tinguished by  the  beauty  of  his  person — an  outward  gift  which  is  sel- 
dom despised,  except  by  those  to  whom  it  has  been  refused.  Before 
he  spoke,  the  orator  engaged  on  his  side  the  affections  of  a  public  or 
private  audience.  They  applauded  his  commanding  presence,  his 
majestic  aspect,  his  piercing  eye,  his  gracious  smile,  his  flowing  beard, 
his  countenance  that  painted  every  sensation  of  the  soul,  and  his 
gestures  that  enforced  each  expression  of  the  tongue.  In  the  familiar 
offices  of  hfe  he  scrupulously  adhered  to  the  grave  and  ceremonious 
politeness  of  his  country :  his  respectful  attention  to  the  rich  and  pow- 
erful was  dignified  by  his  condescension  and  affability  to  the  poorest 
citizens  of  Mecca ;  the  frankness  of  his  manner  concealed  the  artifice 
of  his  views ;  and  the  habits  of  courtesy  were  imputed  to  personal 
friendship  or  universal  benevolence.  His  memory  was  capacious  and 
retentive,  his  wit  easy  and  social,  his  imagination  sublime,  his  judg- 
ment clear,  rapid,  and  decisive.  He  possessed  the  courage  both  of 
thought  and  action ;   and  although  his  designs  might  gradually  ex- 


294  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

pand  with  his  siiccess.the  first  idea  which  he  entertained  of  his  divine 
mission  bears  the  stamp  of  an  original  and  superior  genius.  The  son 
of  Abdallah  was  educated  in  the  bosom  of  the  noblest  race,  in  the  use 
of  the  purest  dialect  of  Arabia;  and  the  fluency  of  his  speech  was  cor- 
rected and  enhanced  by  the  practice  of  discreet  and  seasonable  si- 
lence. With  these  powers  of  eloquence  Mohammed  was  an  illiterate 
barbarian  ;  his  youth  had  never  been  instructed  in  the  arts  of  reading 
and  writing;  the  common  ignorance  exempted  him  from  shame  or 
reproach,  but  he  was  reduced  to  a  narrow  circle  of  existence,  and  de- 
prived of  those  faithful  mirrors  which  I'eflect  to  our  mind  the  minds 
of  sages  and  heroes.  Yet  the  book  of  nature  and  of  man  was  open  to 
his  view ;  and  some  fancy  has  been  indulged  in  the  political  and  phi- 
losophical observations  which  are  ascribed  to  the  Arabian  traveler. 
He  compares  the  nations  and  religions  of  the  earth  ;  discovers  the 
weakness  of  the  Persian  and  Roman  monarchies ;  beholds  with  pity 
and  indignation  the  degeneracy  of  the  times ;  and  resolves  to  unite, 
under  one  God  and  one  king,  the  invincible  spirit  and  primitive  virt- 
ues of  the  Arabs. — Gibbon. 

Do  you  not  think  a  man  may  be  the  wiser — I  had  almost  said  the 
better — for  going  a  hundred  or  two  of  miles ;  and  that  the  mind  has  more 
room  in  it  than  most  people  seem  to  think,  if  you  will  but  furnish  the 
apartments.'*  I  almost  envy  your  last  month,  being  in  a  very  insipid 
situation  myself;  and  desire  you  would  not  fail  to  send  me  some  fur- 
niture for  my  Gothic  apartment,  which  is  very  cold  at  present.  It  will 
be  the  easier  task,  as  you  have  nothing  to  do  but  transcribe  your 
little  red  books,  if  they  are  not  rubbed  out ;  for  I  conclude  you  have 
not  trusted  everything  to  memory,  which  is  ten  times  worse  than  a 
lead-pencil :  half  a  word  fixed  upon  or  near  the  spot  is  worth  a  cart- 
load of  recollection.  When  we  trust  to  the  picture  that  objects  draw 
of  themselves  on  our  mind,  we  deceive  ourselves:  without  accurate 
and  particular  observation,  it  is  but  ill  drawn  at  first,  the  outlines  are 
soon  blurred,  the  colors  every  day  grow  fiiinter;  and  at  last,  when  we 
would  produce  it  to  anybody,  we  are  forced  to  supply  its  defects  with 
a  few  strokes  of  our  own  imagination. —  JVios.  Gray. 

An  acre  in  Middlesex  is  better  than  a  principality  in  Utopia.  The 
smallest  actual  good  is  better  than  the  most  magnificent  promises  of 
impossibilities.  The  wise  man  of  the  Stoics  would,  no  doubt,  be  a 
grander  object  than  a  steam-engine.     But  there  are  steam-engines. 


SPECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE.  29$ 

And  the  wise  man  of  the  Stoics  is  yet  to  be  born.  A  philosophy  which 
should  enable  a  man  to  feel  perfectly  happy  while  in  agonies  of  pain, 
may  be  better  than  a  philosophy  which  assuages  pain.  But  we  know 
that  there  are  remedies  which  will  assuage  pain ;  and  we  know  that 
the  ancient  sages  liked  the  toothache  just  as  little  as  their  neighbors. 
A  philosophy  which  should  extinguish  cupidity,  would  be  better  than 
a  philosophy  which  should  devise  laws  for  the  security  of  property. 
But  it  is  possible  to  make  laws  which  shall,  to  a  very  great  extent,  se- 
cure property.  And  we  do  not  understand  how  any  motives  which 
the  ancient  philosophy  furnished  could  extinguish  cupidity.  We  know 
indeed  that  the  philosophers  were  no  better  than  other  men.  From 
the  testimony  of  friends  as  well  as  of  foes,  from  the  confessions  of 
Epictetus  and  Seneca,  as  well  as  from  the  sneers  of  Lucian  and  the 
fierce  invectives  of  Juvenal,  it  is  plain  that  these  teachers  of  virtue 
had  all  the  vices  of  their  neighbors,  with  the  additional  vice  of  hypoc- 
risy. Some  people  may  think  the  object  of  the  Baconian  philosophy 
a  low  object,  but  they  can  not  deny  that  every  year  makes  an  addition 
to  what  Bacon  called  "  fruit."  They  can  not  deny  that  mankind  have 
made,  and  are  making,  great  and  constant  progress  in  the  road  which 
he  pointed  out  to  them. — Macaulay. 

He  [the  robin]  keeps  a  strict  eye  over  one's  fruit,  and  knows  to  a 
shade  of  purple  when  your  grapes  have  cooked  long  enough  in  the 
sun.  During  the  severe  drought  a  few  years  ago,  the  robins  wholly 
vanished  from  my  garden.  I  neither  saw  nor  heard  one  for  three 
weeks.  Meanwhile  a  small  foreign  grape-vine,  rather  shy  of  bearing, 
seemed  to  find  the  dusty  air  congenial,  and,  dreaming  perhaps  of  its 
sweet  Argos  across  the  sea,  decked  itself  with  a  score  or  so  of  fair 
bunches.  I  watched  them  from  day  to  day  till  they  should  have 
secreted  sugar  enough  from  the  sunbeams,  and  at  last  made  up  my 
mind  that  I  would  celebrate  my  vintage  the  next  morning.  But  the 
robins,  too,  had  somehow  kept  note  of  them.  They  must  have  sent 
out  spies,  as  did  the  Jews  into  the  promised  land,  before  I  was  stirring. 
When  I  went  with  my  basket,  at  least  a  dozen  of  these  winged  vinta- 
gers bustled  out  from  among  the  leaves,  and,  alighting  on  the  nearest 
trees,  interchanged  some  shrill  remarks  about  me  of  a  derogatory 
nature.  They  had  fairly  sacked  the  vine  *****!  was  keep- 
ing my  grapes  a  secret  to  surprise  the  fair  Fidele  with,  but  the  robins 
made  them  a  profounder  secret  to  her  than  I  had  meant.  The  tat- 
tered remnant  of  a  single  bunch  was  all  my  harvest-home.    How  pal- 


296  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

try  it  looked  at  the  bottom  of  my  basket, — as  if  a  humming-bird  had 
laid  her  egg  in  an  eagle's  nest !  I  could  not  help  laughing ;  and  the 
robins  seemed  to  join  heartily  in  the  merriment.  There  was  a  native 
grape-vine  close  by,  blue  with  its  less  refined  abundance,  but  my  cun- 
ning thieves  preferred  the  foreign  flavor.  Could  I  tax  them  with  want 
of  taste  ? — /.  R.  Lowell. 

The  lettuce  is  to  me  a  most-  interesting  study.  Lettuce  is  like  con- 
versation :  it  mu6t  be  fresh  and  crisp,  so  sparkling  that  you  scarcely 
notice  the  bitter  in  it.  Lettuce,  like  most  talkers,  is,  however,  apt  to 
run  rapidly  to  seed.  Blessed  is  that  sort  which  comes  to  a  head,  and 
so  remains,  like  a  few  people  I  know ;  growing  more  soUd,  and  satis- 
factory, and  tender  at  the  same  time,  and  whiter  at  the  center,  and 
crisp  in  their  maturity.  Lettuce,  like  conversation,  requires  a  good 
deal  of  oil,  to  avoid  friction  and  keep  the  company  smooth :  a  pinch 
of  Atdc  salt,  a  dash  of  pepper,  a  quantity  of  mustard  and  vinegar,  by 
all  means,  but  so  mixed  that  you  will  notice  no  sharp  contrasts,  and  a 
trifle  of  sugar.  You  can  put  anything,  and  the  more  things  the  better, 
into  salad,  as  into  a  conversation,  but  everything  depends  upon  the 
skill  of  mixing.  I  feel  that  I  am  in  the  best  society  when  I  am  with 
lettuce.     It  is  in  the  select  circle  of  vegetables. —  C.  D.  Warner. 

I  believe  there  is  nothing  in  nature  which  so  enlaces  one's  love  for 
the  country,  and  binds  it  with  willing  fetters,  as  the  silver  meshes  of  a 
brook.  Not  for  its  beauty  only,  but  for  its  changes;  it  is  the  warbler; 
it  is  the  silent  muser ;  it  is  the  loiterer;  it  is  the  noisy  brawler;  and, 
like  all  brawlers,  beats  itself  into  angry  foam,  and  turns  in  the  eddies 
demurely  penitent,  and  runs  away  to  sulk  under  the  bush.  Brooks, 
too,  pique  terribly  a  man's  audacity,  if  he  has  any  eye  for  landscape 
gardening.  It  seems  so  manageable  in  all  its  wildness.  Here  in  the 
glen  a  bit  of  dam  will  give  a  white  gush  of  waterfall,  and  a  pouring 
sluice  to  some  overshot  wheel ;  and  the  wheel  shall  have  its  connect- 
ing shaft  and  whirl  of  labors.  Of  course  there  shall  be  a  little  scape- 
way  for  the  trout  to  pass  up  and  down ;  a  rustic  bridge  shall  spring 
across  somewhere  below,  and  the  stream  shall  be  coaxed  into  loitering 
where  you  will, — under  the  roots  of  a  beech  that  leans  over  the  water; 
into  a  broad  pool  of  the  pasture  close,  where  the  cattle  may  cool  them- 
selves in  August. — D.  G.  Mitchell, 


CHAPTER    XII. 


THE    PARAPHRASE. 


Paraphrase  is  the  fuller  or  clearer  reproduction  of  an 
author's  complete  thought  in  language  ;  it  is  a  faithful  trans- 
lation from  the  author's  language  to  one's  own.. 

The  paraphrase  of  another's  thought  requires  the  closest 
attention  to  every  detail — strict  criticism  of  the  words  and 
patient  analysis  of  the  grammatical  features  of  expression. 
At  the  same  time,  that  interpretation  which  stops  with 
such  minute  work  is  as  imperfect  and  inadequate  as  that 
which  neglects  it;  such  a  paraphrase  is  sure  to  miss  all  that 
gives  life  and  spirit  to  the  original.  To  the  analytical  judg- 
ment which  is  able  to  reproduce,  with  exactness,  every 
shade  of  the  author's  meaning,  must  be  added  a  vigor- 
ous imagination,  by  which  the  interpreter  can  put  himself 
side  by  side  with  the  author,  and,  looking  thus  through  the 
author's  eyes,  and  communing  with  his  secret  heart,  can 
reproduce  his  inner  feelings,  his  motives,  and  his  ideas. 
It  is  the  highest  merit  of  such  paraphrase  that  the  para- 
phrast  efface  himself,  and  let  the  thought  of  the  original 
be  perfectly  transmitted,  through  a  new  medium,  to  the 
reader. 

Directions  for  Paraphrase. — From  the  foregoing  re- 
marks, the  following  principles  may  be  deduced : 

I.    Get  the  full  meaning  of  every  word  in  the  original, 

and  the  collective  sense  of  the  whole.      When  the  mind  is 

(297) 


298  COMPOSITION    AND  KHEIORIC. 

filled  with  the  thought,  express  it  freely  in  your  own  lan- 
guage, avoiding  as  far  as  possible  the  peculiar  wording  and 
construction  of  the  original  sentences. 

2.  Seek  to  reproduce  the  thought  that  is  expressed  and 
implied  in  the  original,  and  no  more.  The  words  of  the 
author  should  be  avoided,  except  in  those  few  cases  where 
there  is  no  fitting  substitute;  but  an  allusion,  or  a  phrase- 
epithet,  or  the  suggestiveness  of  a  particle,  belongs  prop- 
erly to  what  is  embodied  in  the  passage,  and  must  in  some 
way  enter  into  the  reproduction. 

3.  Let  all  changes  be  made  for  the  sake  of  greater  clear- 
ness. Changes  of  figurative  expressions  are  allowable; 
and  in  the  translation  of  poetry,  it  is  unadvisable  to  follow 
all  the  poetical  flights  of  the  original. 

4.  Guard  against  weakening  the  thought  of  the  original 
by  verbosity;  but  do  not,  for  the  sake  of  condensation, 
sacrifice  fullness  or  clearness. 

5.  Endeavor  to  reproduce  any  peculiar  excellences  of 
the  author's  style ;  its  humor,  its  elegance^  its  dignity. 
Above  all  try  to  maintain  unimpaired  the  tone  and  spirit 
of  the  original ;  this  is  a  point  of  great  importance.  Every 
literary  work  strikes  a  certain  key-note,  elevated  or  collo- 
quial, humorous  or  severe  ;  and  while  it  is  often  an  elegance 
as  well  as  an  advantage  to  rise  on  occasion  to  a  higher 
strain,  it  is  unfortunate  to  fall  below  the  adopted  standard. 

The  following  are  examples  of  paraphrase: 

Original :  For  I  was  alive  without  the  law  once,  but  when  the 
commandment  came,  sin  revived,  and  I  died. — St.  Paul. 

Paraphrase :  "  I  was  aUve  without  the  law  once,"  says  Paul;  "the 
natural  play  of  all  the  forces  and  desires  in  me  went  on  smootiily 
enough  so  long  as  I  did  not  attempt  to  introduce  order  and  regulation 
among  them." — Matthew  Arnold. 

Original:  One  may  smile  and  smile,  and  be  a  villain. — Shakespeare. 


THE  PARAPHRASE. 


299 


Paraphrase :  A  man  may  affect  the  utmost  candor  and  good  nature 
even  while  plotting  the  deepest  iniquity. 

Original :  Praise  ye  the  Lord.  Praise  ye  the  Lord  from  the  heav- 
ens :  praise  him  in  the  heights.  Praise  ye  him,  all  his  angels :  praise 
ye  him,  all  his  hosts.  Praise  ye  him,  sun  and  moon:  praise  him, 
all  ye  stars  of  light.  Praise  him,  ye  heavens  of  heavens,  and  ye 
waters  that  be  above  the  heavens." — Psalm  148. 

Paraphrase :  Praise  ye  the  Lord !  on  every  height 
Songs  to  His  glory  raise! 
Ye  angel-hosts,  ye  stars  of  night. 
Join  in  immortal  praise ! 

O  heaven  of  heavens !  let  praise  far-swelling 

From  all  thine  orbs  be  sent! 
Join  in  the  strain,  ye  waters,  dwelling 

Above  the  firmament ! — Mrs.  Henians. 


SELECTION  FOR  PARAPHRASE. 

•      THE    LITTLE    PEOPLE    OF    THE    SNOW. 

Alice. — One  of  your  old-world  stories,  Uncle  John, 
Such  as  you  tell  us  by  the  winter  fire, 
Till  we  all  wonder  it  is  grown  so  late. 
Uncle  John. — The  story  of  the  witch  that  ground  to  death 
Two  children  in  her  mill,  or  will  you  have 
The  tale  of  Goody  Cutpurse  ? 

Alice. —  Nay  now,  nay ; 

Those  stories  are  too  childish.  Uncle  John, 
Too  childish  even  for  little  Willy  here. 
And  I  am  older,  two  good  years,  than  he ; 
No,  let  us  have  a  tale  of  elves  that  ride, 
By  night,  with  jingling  reins,  or  gnomes  of  the  mine, 
Or  water-fairies,  such  as  you  know  how 
To  spin,  till  Willy's  eyes  forget  to  wink, 


300  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

And  good  Aunt  Mary,  busy  as  she  is, 
Lays  down  her  knitting. 

Uncle  John. —  Listen  to  me,  then. 

'T  was  in  the  olden  time,  long,  long  ago, 
And  long  before  the  great  oak  at  our  door 
Was  yet  an  acorn,  on  a  mountain's  side 
Lived,  with  his  wife,  a  cottager.     They  dwelt 
Beside  a  glen  and  near  a  dashing  brook, 
A  pleasant  spot  in  spring,  where  first  the  wren 
Was  heard  to  chatter,  and,  among  the  grass, 
Flowers  opened  earliest ;  but  when  winter  came, 
That  little  brook  was  fringed  with  other  flowers, — 
White  flowers,  with  crystal  leaf  and  stem,  that  grew 
In  clear  November  nights.     And,  later  still, 
That  mountain-glen  was  filled  with  drifted  snows 
From  side  to  side,  that  one  might  walk  across ; 
While,  many  a  fathom  deep,  below,  the  brook 
Sang  to  itself,  and  leaped  and  trotted  on 
Unfrozen,  o'er  its  pebbles,  toward  the  vale. 
Alice. — A  mountain-side,  you  said;  the  Alps,  perhaps, 
Or  our  own  Alleghanies. 

Uncle  John. —  Not  so  fast, 

My  young  geographer,  for  then  the  Alps, 
With  their  broad  pastures,  haply  were  untrod 
Of  herdsman's  foot,  and  never  human  voice 
Had  sounded  in  the  woods  that  overhang 
Our  Alleghany's  streams.     I  think  it  was 
Upon  the  slopes  of  the  great  Caucasus, 
Or  where  the  rivulets  of  Ararat 
Seek  the  Armenian  vales.     That  mountain  rose 
So  high,  that,  on  its  top,  the  winter-snow 
Was  never  melted,  and  the  cottagers 
Among  the" summer-blossoms,  far  below. 
Saw  its  white  peaks  in  August  from  their  door. 

One  little  maiden,  in  that  cottage-home. 
Dwelt  with  her  parents,  light  of  heart  and  limb. 
Bright,  restless,  thoughtless,  flitting  here  and  there, 
Like  sunshine  on  the  uneasy  ocean  waves. 
And  sometimes  she  forgot  what  she  was  bid, 
As  Alice  does. 


THE  PARAPHRASE.  3OI 

Alice. —  Or  Willy,  quite  as  oft. 

Uncle  John. — But  you  are  older,  Alice,  two  good  years, 
And  should  be  wiser.     Eva  was  the  name 
Of  this  young  maiden,  now  twelve  summers  old. 
Now  you  must  know  that,  in  those  early  times, 
When  autumn  days  grew  pale,  there  came  a  troop 
Of  childlike  forms  from  that  cold  mountain-top ; 
With  trailing  garments  through  the  air  they  came. 
Or  walked  the  ground  with  girded  loins,  and  threw 
Spangles  of  silvery  frost  upon  the  grass, 
And  edged  the  brook  with  glistening  parapets, 
And  built  it  crystal  bridges,  touched  the  pool, 
And  turned  its  face  to  glass  ;  or,  rising  thence. 
They  shook  from  their  full  laps  the  soft,  light  snow, 
And  buried  the  great  earth,  as  autumn  winds 
Bury  the  forest-floor  in  heaps  of  leaves. 

A  beautiful  race  were  they,  with  baby  brows, 
And  fair,  bright  locks,  and  voices  like  the  sound 
Of  steps  on  the  crisp  snow,  in  which  they  talked 
With  man,  as  friend  with  friend.     A  merry  sight 
It  was,  when,  crowding  round  the  traveler, 
They  smote  him  with  their  heaviest  snow-flakes,  flung 
Needles  of  frost  in  handfuls  at  his  cheeks. 
And,  of  the  light  wreaths  of  his  smoking  breath. 
Wove  a  white  fringe  for  his  brown  beard,  and  laughed 
Their  slender  laugh  to  see  him  wink  and  grin, 
And  make  grim  faces  as  he  floundered  on. 

But,  when  spring  came  on,  what  terror  reigned 
Among  these  Little  People  of  the  Snow ! 
To  them  the  sun's  warm  beams  were  shafts  of  fire, 
And  the  soft  south-wind  was  the  wind  of  death. 
Away  they  flew,  all  with  a  pretty  scowl 
Upon  their  childish  faces,  to  the  north. 
Or  scampered  upward  to  the  mountain's  top, 
And  there  defied  their  enemy,  the  Spring; 
Skipping  and  dancing  on  the  frozen  peaks, 
And  molding  little  snow-balls  in  their  palms, 
And  rolling  them,  to  crush  her  flowers  below, 
Down  the  steep  snow-fields. 


302  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

EXAMPLE  OF  PARAPHRASE. 
BY   A    PUPIL. 

A  CHEERFUL  little  family  had  gathered  round  that  winter  fire. 
The  kind,  motherly  aunt  sat  at  one  corner  of  the  hearth,  busy  with 
her  knitting.  Near  her  was  Willy,  her  nephew,  more  asleep  than 
awake  ;  and,  just  opposite,  her  husband  had  settled  himself  comfort- 
ably, with  Alice  at  his  side. 

"Now,  Uncle  John,"  said  the  little  girl,  "we  wish  to  hear  one  of 
your  best  stories, — such  as  you  tell  us  beside  the  fire,  in  the  long  even- 
ings, and  we  all  forget  that  our  bed-hour  has  come  and  passed." 

"What  shall  it  be,  little  one?  There  is  the  story  of  Goody  Cut- 
purse;  or  perhaps  the  old  witch  who  ground  two  children  in  her  mill 
would  please  you  better  ? " 

"  Now,  Uncle  John,  you  know  I  am  too  old  for  such  stories.  Why, 
even  Willy  is  above  them,  and  he  is  two  whole  years  younger  than  I 
am.  No,  no;  they  will  not  do;  tell  us  something  about  those  won- 
derful gnomes  of  the  mine,  or  those  elves  that  ride  with  jingling  reins, 
or  water-fairies,  and  before  you  have  done  Aunt  Mary's  knitting  will 
be  dropped,  and  Willy's  eyes  will  shine  in  wondering  surprise." 

After  bidding  them  give  close  attention,  the  kind  uncle  began : 
"  Many,  many  years  ago,  and  long  before  there  was  any  appearance 
of  the  grand  old  oak  that  for  many  decades  has  shaded  our  home, 
there  lived,  on  a  mountain's  side,  a  cottager  with  his  wife  and  daugh- 
ter. Near  their  cottage  was  a  glen  and  the  boldest  of  clear  brooks. 
What  a  pleasant  place  in  spring !  then  the  lovely  flowers  bloomed, 
and  the  pleasant  chatting  of  little  wren  made  lively  melody  about;  but 
autumn  came, —  all  was  changed  :  gay  flowers  no  longer  decked  the 
Ixinks  of  the  dashing  brook;  for  on  the  clear  November  nights,  the 
wizard  Frost  supplanted  them  with  others  of  rare  whiteness,  whose 
stems  and  leaves  were  beaded  with  purest  pearls.  Winter  came  si- 
lently on.  Soon  the  little  glen  was  filled  with  snow,  which  drifted 
from  the  high  mountains  on  each  side,  forming  a  safe  foot-path  across 
the  narrow  valley;  but  far  beneath  all  this  snow  and  ice,  the  brook 
merrily  wended  its  way  over  its  pebljly  bed,  towards  the  vale." 

"  Did  you  not  say  a  mountain's  side,  Uncle  John?  Was  it  in  our 
own  Alleghanies,  or  in  the  celebrated  Alps  of  Central  Europe?" 


THE  PARAPHRASE.  303 

"  It  was  in  neither,  Alice;  the  great  pastures  of  the  Alps  were  then 
unknown  to  the  herdsman,  and  human  voice  had  never  waked  an 
echo  in  the  forests  that  shadow  the  Alleghany's  streams.  I  think  this 
happened  on  the  slopes  of  the  Caucasus,  or  where  the  slender  rivulets 
flow  down  Mount  Ararat's  side  in  search  of  the  fair  Armenian  val- 
leys. The  mountain  rose  far  above  the  snow  line;  its  top  was  cov- 
ered with  snow  and  ice,  even  while  the  lower  slopes  and  base  were 
rich  in  summer  fruits  and  flowers. 

"Little  Eva,  now  twelve  years  old,  dwelt  in  that  cottage  with  her 
parents.  She  was  a  bright,  merry,  restless  child,  flitting  about  from 
place  to  place,  like  sunshine  on  the  ever-moving  waves  of  ocean.  I 
must  say,  however,  that  she  was  very  thoughtless,  and  sometimes  for- 
got what  her  mother  had  bid  her,  just  as  you  do,  Alice." 

"Willy,  too,  is  sometimes  thoughtless.  Uncle  John." 

"Yes,  Alice:  but  you  have  yourself  declared  that  Willy  is  two 
whole  years  younger  than  you,  and,  therefore,  is  not  expected  to  be 
so  thoughtful.  Once  every  year,  when  the  beautiful  autumn  days  had 
faded  into  the  cold  gray  of  winter,  a  troop  of  childish  forms  came 
down  from  that  bleak  mountain-top.  They  came  through  the  air 
with  trailing  garments ;  or,  with  loins  girt  round,  they  walked  the  bare 
earth,  and  cast  abroad  over  the  withered  grass  glistening  spangles  of 
silvery  frost.  At  their  touch  the  pool  became  a  polished  mirror.  On 
the  edges  of  the  brook  they  built  shining  ramparts ;  across  it,  swung 
crystal  bridges;  or  rising,  they  shook,  from  laps  heaped  high,  the 
feathery  snow-flakes,  and  buried,  as  do  the  leaves  of  autumn  the 
ground  below  them,  the  old  earth  under  a  soft,  white  mantle  of  snow. 

"These  little  people  were  of  loveliest  form  and  feature;  abundant 
fair  hair  shaded  their  young  brows,  and  their  slender,  childish  voices 
could  be  heard  talking  in  friendly  tones  with  man.  The  sight  of 
some  lonely  traveler  was  a  signal  for  their  merriest  pranks.  They 
would  gather  around  him  in  great  numbers,  pelt  him  with  their  largest 
snow-flakes,  prick  his  cheeks  with  frost-needles,  and  of  his  warm 
breath  make  a  white  fringe  for  his  dark  beard, — a  curious  combina- 
tion of  light  and  shade.  Their  delight  grew  wild  to  see  the  poor  vic- 
tim give  signs  of  painful  annoyance,  and  as  they  saw  him  stumble  on, 
their  baby  voices  rang  out  upon  the  icy  air  in  happiest  laughter,  like 
the  tinkling  of  silver  bells."       ***** 


304  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


PARAPHRASE  I. 

Alice. —  That,  too,  must  have  been 

A  merry  sight  to  look  at. 

Uncle  JoJm. —  You  are  right, 

But  I  must  speak  of  graver  matters  now. 

Midwinter  was  the  time,  and  Eva  stood, 
Within  the  cottage,  all  prepared  to  dare 
The  outer  cold,  with  ample  furry  robe 
Close-belted  round  her  waist,  and  boots  of  fur, 
And  a  broad  kerchief,  which  her  mother's  hand 
Had  closely  drawn  about  her  ruddy  cheek. 
"  Now,  stay  not  long  abroad,"  said  the  good  dame, 
"  For  sharp  is  the  outer  air,  and,  mark  me  well. 
Go  not  upon  the  snow  beyond  the  spot 
Where  the  great  linden  bounds  the  neighboring  field." 

The  little  maiden  promised,  and  went  forth. 
And  climbed  the  rounded  snow-swells  firm  with  frost 
Beneath  her  feet,  and  slid,  with  balancing  arms, 
Into  the  hollows.     Once,  as  up  a  drift 
She  slowly  rose,  before  her,  in  the  way, 
She  saw  a  little  creature,  lily-cheeked, 
With  flowing  flaxen  locks,  and  faint  blue  eyes, 
That  gleamed  like  ice,  and  robe  that  only  seemed 
Of  a  more  shadowy  whiteness  than  her  cheek. 
On  a  smooth  bank  she  sat. 
Alice. —  She  must  have  been 

One  of  your  Little  People  of  the  Snow. 

Uncle  John. —  She  was  so,  and,  as  Eva  now  drew  near. 

The  tiny  creature  bounded  from  her  seat; 
"And  come,"  she  said,  "my  pretty  friend;  to-day 
We  will  be  playmates.     I  have  watched  thee  long. 
And  seen  how  well  thou  lov'st  to  walk  these  drifts. 
And  scoop  their  fair  sides  into  little  cells, 
And  carve  them  with  quaint  figures, — huge-limbed  men, 
Lions,  and  griffins.     We  will  have,  to-day, 
A  merry  ramble  over  these  bright  fields. 
And  thou  shalt  see  what  thou  hast  never  seen." 


THE  PARAPHRASE.  305 


PARAPHRASE  II. 

On  went  the  pair,  until  they  reached  the  bound 

Where  the  great  hnden  stood,  set  deep  in  snow, 

Up  to  the  lower  branches.     "  Here  we  stop," 

Said  Eva,  "  for  my  mother  has  my  word 

That  I  will  go  no  farther  than  this  tree." 

Then  the  snow-maiden  laughed:  "And  what  is  this  ? 

This  fear  of  the  pure  snow,  the  innocent  snow. 

That  never  harmed  aught  living  ?    Thou  mayst  roam 

For  leagues  beyond  this  garden,  and  return 

In  safety ;  here  the  grim  wolf  never  prowls, 

And  here  the  eagle  of  our  mountain -crags 

Preys  not  in  winter.     I  will  show  the  way. 

And  bring  thee  safely  home.     Thy  mother,  sure. 

Counseled  thee  thus  because  thou  hadst  no  guide." 

By  such  smooth  words  was  Eva  won  to  break 
Her  promise,  and  went  on  with  her  new  friend. 
Over  the  glistening  snow  and  down  a  bank 
Where  a  white  shelf,  wrought  by  the  eddying  wind. 
Like  to  a  billow's  crest  in  the  great  sea. 
Curtained  an  opening.     "  Look,  we  enter  here." 
And  straight,  beneath  the  fair  o'erhanging  fold. 
Entered  the  little  pair  that  hill  of  snow. 
Walking  along  a  passage  with  white  walls. 
And  a  white  vault  above  where  snow-stars  shed 
A  wintry  twilight.     Eva  moved  in  awe, 
And  held  her  peace,  but  the  snow-maiden  smiled, 
And  talked,  and  tripped  along,  as,  down  the  way, 
Deeper  they  went  into  that  mountainous  drift. 


PARAPHRASE  HI. 

When,  at  last. 
They  reached  the  outer  air,  the  clear  north  breathed 
A  bitter  cold,  from  which  she  shrank  with  dread, 
But  the  snow-maiden  bounded  as  she  felt 

Rhet.— 26. 


306  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

The  cutting  blast,  and  uttered  shouts  of  joy, 

And  skipped,  with  boundless  glee,  from  drift  to  drift, 

And  danced  round  Eva,  as  she  labored  up 

The  mounds  of  snow.     "Ah  me  !  I  feel  my  eyes 

Grow  heavy,"  Eva  said;  "they  swim  with  sleep; 

I  can  not  walk  for  utter  weariness, 

And  I  must  rest  a  moment  on  this  bank. 

But  let  it  not  be  long."     As  thus  she  spoke, 

In  half  formed  words,  she  sank  on  the  smooth  snow, 

With  closing  lids.     Her  guide  composed  the  robe 

About  her  limbs,  and  said,   "A  pleasant  spot 

Is  this  to  slumber  in ;  on  such  a  couch 

Oft  have  I  slept  away  the  winter  night, 

And  had  the  sweetest  dreams."     So  Eva  slept, 

But  slept  in  death ;  for  when  the  power  of  frost 

Locks  up  the  motions  of  the  living  frame. 

The  victim  passes  to  the  realm  of  Death 

Through  the  dim  porch  of  sleep.     The  little  guide, 

Watching  beside  her,  saw  the  hues  of  life 

Fade  from  the  fair  smooth  brow  and  rounded  cheek, 

As  fades  the  crimson  from  a  morning  cloud. 

Till  they  were  white  as  marble,  and  the  breath 

Had  ceased  to  come  and  go,  yet  knew  she  not 

At  first  that  this  was  death.     But  when  she  marked 

How  deep  the  paleness  was,  how  motionless 

That  once  lithe  form,  a  fear  came  over  her. 

She  strove  to  wake  the  sleeper,  plucked  her  robe, 

And  shouted  in  her  ear,  but  all  in  vain; 

The  life  had  passed  away  from  those  young  limbs. 


J'ARAPIIRASE   IV. 

Then  the  snow-maiden  raised  a  wailing  cry, 
Such  as  a  dweller  in  some  lonely  wild. 
Sleepless  through  all  the  long  December  night, 
Hears  when  the  mournful  East  begins  to  blow. 

But  suddenly  was  heard  the  sound  of  steps, 
Grating  on  the  crisp  snow  ;  the  cottagers 


THE  PARAPHRASE. 

Were  seeking  Eva;  from  afar  they  saw 

The  twain,  and  hurried  toward  them.     As  they  came, 

With  gentle  chidings  ready  on  their  hps. 

And  marked  that  deathhke  sleep,  and  heard  the  tale 

Of  the  snow-maiden,  mortal  anguish  fell 

Upon  their  hearts,  and  bitter  words  of  grief 

And  blame  were  uttered:  "  Cruel,  cruel  one, 

To  tempt  our  daughter  thus,  and  cruel  we, 

Who  suffered  her  to  wander  forth  alone 

In  this  fierce  cold  !  "     They  lifted  the  dear  child, 

And  bore  her  home  and  chafed  her  tender  limbs. 

And  strove,  by  all  the  simple  arts  they  knew. 

To  make  the  chilled  blood  move,  and  win  the  breath 

Back  to  her  bosom  ;  fruitlessly  they  strove  ; 

The  little  maid  was  dead.     In  blank  despair 

They  stood,  and  gazed  at  her  who  never  more 

Should  look  on  them.     "Why  die  we  not  with  her?" 

They  said;  "without  her,  life  is  bitterness." 

Now  came  the  funeral-day  ;  the  simple  folk 
Of  all  that  pastoral  region  gathered  round 
To  share  the  sorrow  of  the  cottagers. 
They  carved  a  way  into  the  mound  of  snow 
To  the  glen's  side,  and  dug  a  little.grave 
In  the  smooth  slope,  and,  following  the  bier. 
In  long  procession  from  the  silent  door. 
Chanted  a  sad  and  solemn  melody : 

"  Lay  her  away  to  rest  within  the  ground. 
Yea,  lay  her  down  whose  pure  and  innocent  life 
Was  spotless  as  these  snows ;  for  she  was  reared 
In  love,  and  passed  in  love  life's  pleasant  spring. 
And  all  that  now  our  tenderest  love  can  do 
Is  to  give  burial  to  her  lifeless  limbs." 


PARAPHRASE   V. 

They  paused.     A  thousand  slender  voices  round, 
Like  echoes  softly  flung  from  rock  and  hill. 
Took  up  the  strain,  and  all  the  hollow  air 
Seemed  mourning  for  the  dead ;  for,  on  that  day. 


307 


308  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

The  Little  People  of  the  Snow  had  come, 
From  mountain-peak,  and  cloud,  and  icy  hall, 
To  Eva's  burial.     As  the  murmur  died. 
The  funeral-train  renewed  the  solemn  chant : 

"Thou,  Lord,  hast  taken  her  to  be  with  Eve, 
Whose  gentle  name  was  given  her.     Even  so. 
For  so  thy  wisdom  saw  that  it  was  best 
For  her  and  us.     We  bring  our  bleeding  hearts 
And  ask  the  touch  of  healing  from  Thy  hand. 
As,  with  submissive  tears,  we  render  back 
The  lovely  and  beloved  to  Him  who  gave." 

They  ceased.     Again  the  plaintive  murmur  rose. 
From  shadowy  skirts  of  low-hung  cloud  it  came. 
And  wide  white  fields,  and  fir-trees  capped  with  snow. 
Shivering  to  the  sad  sounds.     They  sank  away 
To  silence  in  the  dim-seen,  distant  woods. 

The  little  grave  was  closed ;  the  funeral-train 
Departed ;  winter  wore  away  ;  the  spring 
Steeped,  with  her  quickening  rains,  the  violet-tufts. 
By  fond  hands  planted  where  the  maiden  slept. 
But,  after  Eva's  burial,  never  more 
The  Little  People  of  the  Snow  were  seen 
By  human  eye,  nor  ever  human  ear 
Heard  from  their  lips  articulate  speech  again  ; 
For  a  decree  went  forth  to  cut  them  off. 
Forever,  from  communion  with  mankind. 
The  winter-clouds,  along  the  mountain-side. 
Rolled  downward  toward  the  vale,  but  no  fair  form 
Leaned  from  their  folds,  and,  in  the  icy  glens. 
And  aged  woods,  under  snow-loaded  pines. 
Where  once  they  made  their  haunt,  was  emptiness. 

But  ever,  when  the  wintry  days  drew  near. 
Around  that  little  grave,  in  the  long  night. 
Frost-wreaths  were  laid,  and  tufts  of  silvery  rime. 
In  shape  like  blades  and  blossoms  of  the  field. 
As  one  would  scatter  flowers  upon  a  bier. 

W.  C.  Bryant. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


PROSE    COMPOSITION. 


Prose. — The  term  Prose  is  applied  to  all  composition 
which  is  not  in  verse.  It  means  the  ordinary,  straightfor- 
ward manner  of  discourse,  in  distinction  from  the  inverted 
order  so  common  in  poetry. 

Although  no  exact  classification  has  been  made  of  the 
varieties  of  prose  composition,  the  principal  forms  are  Dis- 
courses, Letters,  Essays,  Treatises,  Travels,  History,  Fic- 
tion, Biography,  News. 

Discourses. 

A  Discourse  differs  from  other  kinds  of  composition  in 
the  fact  that  it  is  intended  to  be  read  or  spoken  to  the 
persons  addressed,  instead  of  being  read  by  them. 

The  principal  kinds  of  discourses  are  Orations,  Ad- 
dresses, Sermons,  Lectures,  and  Speeches.  Conversation  is 
discourse  between  two  or  more  people;  its  value  as  a  prep- 
aration to  written  discourse  is  beyond  estimate.  It  widens 
one's  view  of  his  subject,  puts  him  in  better  possession  of 
his  thought,  teaches  him  how  to  communicate  it,  and  gives 
him  the  art  of  putting  it  so  as  to  make  it  most  effective. 

An  Oration  is  a  discourse  of  the  most  formal  and  elab- 
orate kind.  It  is  generally  in  commemoration  of  some 
great  event,  or  in  eulogy  of  some  distinguished  person,  or 

on  an  occasion  justifying  the  most  careful  preparation.      It 

(309  J 


3IO  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

is,  therefore,  never  familiar  and  colloquial,  but  graceful, 
polished,  and  dignified,  disclosing  rare  scholarship,  and 
abounding,  often,  in  classic  allusion.  Everett's  oration  on 
"Washington"  is  a  fine  example. 

An  Address  is  nearly  akin  to  an  oration,  but  somewhat 
less  formal  in  character,  and  much  less  restricted  in  regard 
to  the  occasion  and  the  subject. 

The  occasions  demanding  an  address  are  many  and  vari- 
ous. The  Governor  of  a  State,  the  President  of  a  College, 
or  the  President  of  an  Association,  on  entering  upon  the 
duties  of  his  office,  usually  delivers  an  address. 

"  A  Sermon  is  a  formal  discourse  delivered  by  a  clergy- 
man before  a  religious  body.  It  is  founded  usually  on  some 
passage  of  Scripture,  and  is  intended  for  religious  instruc- 
tion. No  other  species  of  oral  discourse  ranks  with  the 
sermon  in  variety  and  dignity  of  topics,  and  in  the  impor- 
tance of  the  motives  arrayed  and  of  the  ends  presented. 

A  Lecture  is  a  discourse  on  any  subject,  secular  or  re- 
ligious. Lectures  are  usually  formal  or  methodical  dis- 
courses, intended  for  instruction,  though  not  a  few  are 
meant  to  amuse,  and  some  to  persuade.  Those  whose 
sole  object  is  to  create  amusement,  and  that  not  of  the 
most  elevated  kind,  have  no  legitimate  claim  to  the  title 
of  lecture. 

A  Speech  is  always  intended  to  be  spoken,  and  it  is 
limited  to  no  particular  subject  or  occasion. 

The  most  common  places  for  making  speeches  are  legis- 
lative assemblies,  courts  of  justice,  and  various  kinds  of 
popular  conventions,    political,    educational,  and  religious. 

The  subject-matter  of  these  speeches  is  usually  thoroughly 
prepared,  but  commonly  the  speeches  are  not  written  out — 
the  wording  of  the  thoug'ht  being  left   to  the   occasion ; 


PROSE  COMPOSITION.  3  I  I 

sometimes,  however,  thought  and  expression  are  inspired 
by  the  occasion,  and  the  speech  is  delivered  extemporane- 
ously,— composed  at  the  time  and  in  the  act  of  delivery. 

In  the  construction  of  all  the  more  formal  kinds  of  dis- 
course certain  principles  are  to  be  observed.  First,  the 
discourse  must  maintain  a  certain  unity  of  subject, —  the 
topics  introduced  must  have  some  common  bond  of  union, 
connecting  and  subordinating  them  all  to  one  leading 
thought  or  purpose.  Secondly,  it  should  be  adapted  to  the 
hearers,  both  in  the  subject  selected  and  in  the  manner  of 
treating  it.  Thirdly,  it  should  be  syninietrieal, — the  parts 
should  be  related  each  to  each  in  due  order  and  proportion. 

The  parts  of  a  discourse  are:  (i)  The  introduction  ;  (2)  The 
statement  of  the  subject ;  (3)  The  main  discourse ;  (4)  The 
conclusion. 

1.  TJie  Bitrodiiction,  or  Exordium,  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant and  one  of  the  most  difficult  parts  of  a  discourse. 
Its  object  is  to  render  the  hearers  well  disposed,  attentive, 
and  open  to  persuasion.  It  should  be  easy  and  natural, 
accurate,  calm,  and  modest ;  further,  it  should  not  antici- 
pate any  of  the  main  points  of  the  discourse. 

2.  TJic  Statement  should  be  made  in  few  and  simple 
words,  and  with  the  utmost  possible  clearness. 

3.  Tlie  Main  Diseourse  must  be  left  much  to  the  judg- 
ment and  invention  of  the  writer  or  speaker.  No  two  sub- 
jects ordinarily  are  to  be  handled  precisely  alike ;  no  two 
writers  handle  the  same  topic  exactly  in  the  same  way 
under  different  circumstances ;  but  whatever  be  the  method 
of  treatment,  the  discussion  should  be  honest  and  thorough. 

4.  The  Conclusion,  or  Peroration,  like  the  Introduction, 
requires  special  care.  The  object  in  the  conclusion  is  to 
leave  as  strong  an  impression  as  possible  upon  the  minds 
of  the  audience. 


312  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 


Letters. 

Letters  are  written  communications  addressed  by  the 
writer  to  some  other  person  or  persons.  Not  every  one 
can  reasonably  aspire  to  write  histories  or  works  of  fiction, 
or  any  of  the  other  varieties  of  composition ;  but  every  one 
writes  letters,  and  the  difference  between  a  letter  well  writ- 
ten and  one  badly  written  is  so  great  as  to  demand  the  most 
careful  consideration  of  the  subject. 

Usually  letters  are  upon  matters  purely  personal  and 
private,  and  are  prompted  by  friendship  or  by  business; 
sometimes  they  are  upon  topics  of  general  interest,  and  are 
thought  worthy  of  publication.  The  letters  of  distinguished 
persons,  from  the  universal  desire  to  learn  all  that  can  be 
known  of  the  writer's  character  and  situation,  by  reason  of 
the  importance  of  the  subject  discussed  or  by  the  exquisite 
style  in  which  his  thoughts  are  couched,  have  been  gathered 
into  volumes,  and  form  a  valuable  part  of  literature. 

Letters  should  be  natural  and  simple  in  style;  a  stiff  and 
labored  manner  is  to  be  as  much  condemned  as  an  affecta- 
tion of  brilliancy.  The  style  of  a  letter  should  not  be  too 
highly  polished ;  it  ought  to  be  neat  and  correct,  smoothly 
flowing,  and  graceful  through  sprightliness  and  wit. 

The  Form. — In  writing  a  letter  there  are  five  things  to 
consider — the  heading,  the  address,  the  body  of  the  letter, 
the  subscription,  or  conclusion,  and  the  superscription. 

The  Heading  includes  two  points,  namely,  the  place 
where,  and  the  time  when,  the  letter  is  written.  If  you 
write  from  a  city,  you  should  give  the  street  and  number 
as  well  as  the  city  and  State.  If  you  write  from  a  small 
country  place,  give  your  post-office  address,  the  name  of 


PROSE  COMPOSITION.  313 

the  county,  and  that  of  the  State.     The  date  consists  of  the 
month,  the  day  of  the  month,  and  the  year. 

The  heading  is  usually  begun  on  the  first  ruled  line,  and 
a  little  to  the  left  of  the  middle  of  the  page.  If  the  head- 
ing is  short,  it  may  stand  on  one  line.  If  it  occupies  more 
than  one  line,  the  second  line  should  begin  farther  to  the 
right  than  the  first,  and  the  third  farther  to  the  right  than 
the  second.  If  the  heading  occupies  more  than  one  line, 
the  date  should  stand  upon  a  line  by  itself.  The  number 
of  the  house,  the  day  of  the  month,  and  the  year,  are  writ- 
ten in  figures,  the  rest  in  words.  Each  important  word 
begins  with  a  capital  letter,  each  item  is  set  off  by  a  com- 
ma, and  the  whole  closes  with  a  period.     Thus: 


Scioto,  Ohio,  Nov.  2,,  i 

Lebanon,  Ky., 

J  tine  4,  i8y_^. 


■2,2,1   W.  Franklin  St., 

(Richmond,  Va., 

July  8,  i88o. 

Glendower,  Albemarle  Co.,  Va., 

November  lo,  i88j . 

The  Address  consists  of  the  name,  the  title,  and  the 
place  of  business  or  the  residence  of  the  one  addressed,  and 
the  salutation.  It  is  necessary  in  addressing  a  letter  to 
know  what  title  to  give.  A  young  lad  usually  has  the 
prefix  Master;  an  unmarried  woman,  Miss;  a  married 
woman   or  widow,   Mrs.;  a  man  who  has  no  other  title, 

Rhet— 27. 


314  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Mr.  Messrs.  precedes  the  names  of  several  gentlemen. 
Prefix  Dr.  to  the  name  of  a  physician,  or  place  the  title 
M.  D.  after  the  name.  Esquire,  a  title  of  dignity  next 
below  a  knight,  is  prefixed  to  the  name  of  a  justice  of 
the  peace  and  other  magistrates,  and,  by  courtesy,  is  ex- 
tended to  men  of  the  liberal  professions  and  pursuits. 
Prefix  Rev.  to  the  name  of  a  clergyman ;  Rt.  Rev.  to  that 
of  a  Bishop ;  Rev.  Dr.  or  Rev.  before  that  of  a  Doctor  of 
Divinity,  and  D.  D.  after  it.  To  the  name  of  the  Pres- 
ident, to  that  of  a  governor  or  an  embassador,  prefix  His 
Excellency ;  to  that  of  a  cabinet  officer,  a  member  of  con- 
gress, a  member  of  a  State  legislature,  a  law  judge,  or  a 
mayor,  prefix  Hon.  The  prefix  Hon.  extinguishes  the 
title  of  Esquire  after  the  name,  but  not  any  title  of  special 
honor,  as  LL.  D.  Guard  against  an  excessive  use  of 
titles — the  higher  implies  the  lower.  When  one  reaches 
D.  D.  or  LL.  D.,  he  drops  his  A.  B.  or  his  A.  M.  It  is 
customary,  however,  to  retain  both  the  two  higher  titles, 
D.  D.  and  LL.  D.,  written  in  the  order  conferred. 

The  President  of  the  United  States  is  addressed  thus; 
on  the  outside  of  the  letter: 

To  the  T' resident, 

Executive  Mansion, 

Washington,  (Z).  C. 
Inside : 

Mr.  President, — /  have  the  honor,  eic. 

Salutations  vary  with  the  station  of  the  .one  addressed, 
or  the  writer's  degree  of  intimacy  with  him ;  as,  Sir,  Dear 
Sir,  My  dear  Sir,  Madam,  Dear  Madam,  Rev.  Sir,  My 
dear  Madam,  My  dear  Dr.  Finlay,  My  dear  Son,  etc. 


PROSE  COMPOSITION.  315 

The  address  follows  the  heading,  beginning  on  the  next 
line,  and  standing  on  the  left  side  of  the  page ;  or,  if  the 
letter  is  written  to  an  intimate  friend,  or  if  it  is  an  official 
letter,  the  address  may  be  placed  at  the  bottom  after  the 
conclusion.  In  other  letters,  especially  those  on  ordinary 
business,  it  should  be  placed  at  the  top.  Never  omit  it 
from  a  letter  that  is  not  written  in  the  third  person.  If 
the  address  occupies  more  than  one  line,  the  initial  words 
of  these  lines  should  be  written  each  a  little  to  the  right 
of  the  preceding,  as  in  the  heading.  Every  important 
word  in  the  address  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 
Each  item  of  it  should  be  set  off  by  a  comma,  and  the 
whole  should  close  with  a  period.  The  important  words 
in  the  salutation  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter,  and 
the  whole  be  followed  by  a  colon  or  a  comma.     Thus: 

Hon.  John  W.  Daniel, 

Washington,  (Z).  C. 
(Dear  Sir  : 

We  have — 

Mr.  James  F .  Harrison, 

(Pres.  'Board  of  Commerce, 

y-^o  Pine  St.,  St.  Lotus,  Mo. 
My  dear  Sir, — Your — 

Messrs.  Houghton,  Mifiin,  &-  Co., 

4  (Park  Street, 

(Boston,  Mass. 
Gentlemen : 

Your  letter  of  the  4th  instant — 


3l6  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

The  Body  of  the  Letter.  —  Begin  the  body  of  the  let- 
ter at  the  end  of  the  salutation,  and  on  the  same  line  or 
on  the  line  below ;  if  on  the  same  line,  follow  the  saluta- 
tion by  a  comma  followed  by  a  dash.  Paragraph  and 
punctuate  as  in  other  kinds  of  writing.-  Write  neatly  and 
with  care;  the  letter  "bespeaks  the  man."  Letters  of 
friendship  should  be  natural  and  familiar.  It  is  a  great 
mistake  in  writing  such  letters  to  suppose  that  only  the 
marvelous  is  worth  writing  about.  It  is  the  incidents  of 
every-day  life,  the  characteristic  little  acts  and  speeches 
of  the  members  of  the  household,  that  one  longs  to  hear 
about  when  away.  Business  letters  should  be  brief,  and 
the  sentences  short  and  to  the  point,  hi  formal  notes  the 
third  person  is  generally  used  instead  of  the  first  and  sec- 
ond ;  there  is  no  heading,  no  introduction,  no  signature, 
only  the  name  of  the  place  and  the  date  at  the  bottom, 
on  the  left  side  of  the  page.     Thus : 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  James  '??.  Field  invite  Mr.  H .  M .  Logan 
to  meet  their  niece,  Miss  Gertrude  Townsend,  on  Friday 
evening  at  six  o'clock. 

2i-2  Genesee  Av.,  Oct.  2. 

Mr.  H .  M.  Logan  will  be  most  happy  to  accept  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  J  as.  (R.  Field's  kind  invitation  to  "meet  Miss  Tozvn= 
send,  Friday  evening. 

144  Olive  Street,  Oct.  ^. 

The  Conclusion  consists  of  the  complimentaty  close  and 
the  sig}iature.  The  complimentary  close  consists  of  the 
closing  words  of  respect  or  affection,  and  is  expressed  in 
many  forms;  thus.  Your  sincere  friend ;  Your  loving  daug li- 
ter; Yours  tmly ;  Respectfully  yours ;  Very  truly  yours,  etc. 


PROSE  COMPOSITION.  317 

The  signature  consists  of  your  christian  name  and  your 
surname.  In  addressing  a  stranger,  write  your  christian 
name  in  full.  A  lady  writing  to  a  stranger  should  prefix 
her  title  in  parenthesis  —  {jVh'ss)  or  {Mrs.) — to  her  own 
name. 

The  conclusion  should  begin  near  the  middle  of  the  first 
line  below  the  body  of  the  letter,  and  each  line  should 
begin  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  preceding,  as  in  the  head- 
ing and  the  address.  Begin  each  line  of  it  with  a  capital 
letter,  and  punctuate  as  in  other  writing,  following  the 
whole  with  a  period. 

The  Superscription  is  the  address  upon  the  envelope. 
It  is  the  same  as  the  address,  consisting  of  the  name  of 
the  one  addressed,  the  titles,  the  number  of  the  house, 
the  street,  the  city,  and  the  state.  The  name  should  be 
about  midway  between  the  top  and  the  bottom  of  the  en- 
velope, and  about  equally-  distant  from  the  two  ends. 
The  spaces  between  the  lines  should  be  the  same,  and  the 
initial  of  each  line  should  be  placed  to  the  right  of  the 
one  preceding,  as  in  the  addres?,,  the  last  line  ending  near 
the  lower  rieht-hand  corner.      Thus : 


Hon.  Chas.  (R.  New  comb, 

I'^z,  Fayette  Av., 

Louisville, 

Kv. 


Both  safety  of  carriage  and  respect  for  the  one  addressed, 
demand  that  the  superscription  be  written  in  a  legible  hand. 


3l8  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 


Essays. 

An  Essay  is  a  composition  treating  a  subject  in  a  man- 
ner somewhat  formal  and  systematic.  Essays  vary  in  size 
from  short  compositions  to  elaborate  and  lengthened  works, 
treating  the  subject  with  great  fullness  and  dignity.  Of 
this  latter  class  Macaulay's  "Essays,"  and  those  of  Carlyle, 
are  illustrations. 

No  other  species  of  writing  ranges  over  so  wide  and 
varied  a  field  of  topics,  and  none  other  allows  such  freedom 
and  diversity  in.  the  handling ;  hence  the  great  number  of 
essayists — a  number  almost  identical  with  that  of  writers, 
for  essays  are  written  by  almost  every  one  who  is  engaged 
in  any  kind  of  authorship.  Essays  now  usually  appear 
first  as  contributions  to  magazines.  If  they  have  met  with 
favor  in  this  form,  they  are  sometimes  collected  and  pub- 
lished in  separate  volumes. 

Treatises. 

A  Treatise  implies  a  more  formal  and  methodical  treat- 
ment than  an  essay,  but  is  not  necessarily  a  full  and  elab- 
orate discussion  of  the  subject,  though  it  is  expected  to 
embrace  the  whole.  An  essay,  on  the  other  hand,  may 
select  particular  parts  of  a  subject;  it  may  also  abound  in 
ornaments  and  figures,  and  reveal  the  personality  of  the 
writer,  while  a  treatise  is  usually  plain  in  style,  rarely  ad- 
mitting rhetorical  ornament;  it  aims  to  set  forth  the  bare 
facts  and  truths  of  a  subject,  and  is,  therefore,  compara- 
tively impersonal.  Treatises  are  usually  upon  some  definite 
branch  of  science,  as  astronomy,  botany,  algebra,  arithme' 
tic,  rhetoric,  logic,  and  the  like. 


PROSE  COMPOSITION. 


Travels. 


319 


A  Book  of  Trav'els  is  a  work  describing,  or  picturing, 
places  and  peoples  visited  by  the  author.  Since  he  tells 
us  things  which  we  can  not  see  for  ourselves,  the  traveler 
should  be  specially  accurate  in  regard  to  facts  generally ; 
we  look  to  him  for  the  exact  truth.  While  we  can  not 
expect  works  written  in  the  haste  and  excitement  of  actual 
travel  to  have  a  finished  and  elegant  style,  yet  there  are 
books  written  by  travelers  of  the  present  day  that  abound 
in  passages  of  eloquent  description,  exciting  narrative,  and 


delightful  humor. 


History. 


A  History  (from  the  Greek,  Jiistorcin,  to  learn,  to  know 
by  inquiry),  is  a  narrative  of  events  arranged  in  a  methodical 
manner,  so  as  to  show  the  connection  of  cause  and  effect. 
As  the  proper  office  of  the  historian  is  to  record  truth  for  the 
instruction  of  mankind,  the  fundamental  qualities  required 
of  him  are  impartiality,  fidelity,  and  accuracy.  He  must 
not  enter  into  faction,  nor  give  scope  to  affection ;  but,  cool 
and  dispassionate,  he  must  present  to  his  readers  a  faithful 
copy  of  the  men  and  the  events  that  have  influenced  the 
destinies  of  nations. 

In  the  conduct  and  management  of  his  subject,  the  his- 
torian should  aim  at  unity;  his  work  should  not  consist  of 
separate,  unconnected  parts,  but  should  be  bound  together 
by  some  connecting  principle,  producing  the  effect  of  some- 
thing that  is  one,  whole,  and  entire.  In  his  effort  to  ren- 
der his  narration  agreeable  he  must  not  neglect  chronolog- 
ical order,  but  must  be  able  to  form  some  connection 
among  the  affairs  which  he  relates,  so  as  to  introduce  them 


320  COMPOSITION  AND    RHETORIC. 

in  a  proper  train.  His  style  should  be  grave  and  dignified; 
no  affectation  of  pertness  or  of  wit  is  allowed.  In  the  ap- 
plication of  the  lessons  of  History  to  questions  agitating 
the  world  at  the  time  of  the  historian,  there  is  need,  at  one 
time,  for  the  most  vigorous  and  logical  exercise  of  his  rea- 
soning faculty,  at  another,  for  the  spacious  flights  of  his 
imagination,  and  throughout  a  demand  for  a  wording  which 
shall  range  from  dry  and  matter-of-fact  up  through  all  grades 
of  expression  to  the  ornate  and  elegant. 

The  delineation  of  character  is  one  of  the  most  splendid 
parts  of  historical  composition  ;  it  is,  at  the  same  time,  one 
of  the  most  difficult.  Some  historians  have  given  us  pen 
portraits  that  are  masterly  and  enduring;  others  have  painted 
in  colors  already  fading. 

It  is  necessary  that  the  soundest  morality  pervade  all 
historical  writing.  Both  in  describing  character,  and  in 
relating  transactions,  the  author  should  always  show  him- 
self to  be  on  the  side  of  virtue. 

Chronicles,  Annals,  Memoirs,  and  Biographies  are  spe- 
cies of  historical  composition. 

A  Chronicle  is  a  history  in  which  the  events  are  stated 
with  special  reference  to  the  order  of  time. 

Annals  are  facts  arranged  in  strict  chronological  order, 
and  divided  into  distinct  years. 

A  Memoir  is  a  species  of  history  composed  from  per- 
sonal experiences  and  memory.  This  species  of  composi- 
tion does  not  demand  the  same  research  or  the  same  varied 
,  information  that  is  found  in  history ;  the  author  relates  only 
that  with  which  he  himself  has  been  connected,  or  that 
which  has  fallen  under  his  personal  observation.  The  writer 
is  not  subject  to  the  same  laws  of  dignity  and  gravity.     He 


PROSE  COMPOSITION.  32  I 

may  talk  freely  of  himself;  he  may  descend  into  the  most 
familiar  anecdotes. 

A  Biography  is  the  history  of  an  individual,  setting  be- 
fore us  what  manner  of  man  he  was,  and  what  he  did.  The 
biography  of  one  in  any  way  eminent  in  public  life  is  largely 
a  history  of  his  times.  Biography  deals  much  with  char- 
acter ;  it  abounds  in  personal  incidents  and  anecdotes,  which 
afford  the  reader  the  opportunity  of  seeing  the  characters 
and  tempers,  the  virtues  and  failings,  of  eminent  men ;  and 
which  admit  him  into  a  thorough  and  intimate  acquaintance 
with  such  persons.  In  such  work  the  biographer  is  helped 
by  the  letters  of  his  subject.  In  these  the  man  speaks  more 
fully  and  frankly  than  in  his  public  efforts.  His  hopes  and 
fears,  his  struggles,  defeats,  and  triumphs,  are  apt  to  find 
expression  in  his  letters,  and  in  these  he  displays  his  inner 
self  to  us.  And  so,  especially  in  recent  times,  letters  form 
a  very  large  part  of  biographies — often  the  most  valuable 
part. 

In  writing  biographical  sketches,  the  following  outline 
will  serve  as  a  guide: 

Ancestry. 

Birth — time  ;  place. 

Education — (all  formative  influences)  home;  school;  books;  nat- 
ure ;  public  events  ;  travel. 

Orderly  statement  of  the  chief  events  in  which  he  participated, 
and  the  part  he  took  in  them. 

Death — time ;  place  ;  circumstances. 

Estimate  of  character — personal  appearance;  mental  qualities; 
moral  qualities  ;  influence  on  the  world  ;  comparison  with  others. 

An  Autobiography  is  a  biography  of  an  individual  writ- 
ten by  himself  The  writer  records  the  actions  of  his  pri- 
vate as  well  as  his  public  life ;  and  explains,  as  no  other 
can,  the  motives  and  circumstances  which  controlled  him. 


322  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Fiction. 

A  Work  of  Fiction  is  a  production  wliich  depicts  the 
lives  of  imaginary  persons.  It  sometimes  deals  with  real 
men  and  women,  but,  even  in  this  case,  it  does  not  claim 
to  relate  what  they  actually  said  and  did. 

The  names  most  commonly  given  to  works  of  fiction  are 
Novels  and  Romances.  These  terms  are  for  the  most  part 
used  interchangeably;  but,  strictly  speaking,  a  novel  is  a 
fictitious  narrative,  designed  to  represent  the  operation  of 
human  passions,  especially  that  of  love ;  while  a  romance 
is  a  kind  of  novel  of  an  extravagant  nature,  which  treats 
of  wild  or  startling  adventures,  particularly  in  love  or  war. 

Fiction  has  to  do  with  the  motives  that  influence  persons, 
with  the  behavior  of  the  persons  under  such  influence,  and 
with  the  development  of  character  under  the  conditions  im- 
posed. In  its  portrayal  of  character,  it  seeks  to  give  a  just 
insight  into  human  nature ;  by  means  of  the  dialogue,  in 
which  the  novel  abounds,  each  person  reveals  his  peculiar- 
ities and  furnishes  us  a  picture  of  himself  so  true  as  to  re- 
quire only  a  few  touches  by  the  author  to  make  it  as  vivid 
as  reality. 

Some  novels  teach  us  much  concerning  the  customs, 
habits,  manners,  domestic  and  social  life,  and  even  the 
history  of  the  people  during  the  age  in  which  the  scenes 
are  laid.  Other  novels,  with  a  higher  purpose,  aim  to  in- 
terest us  in  classes  of  society  whose  condition  should  be 
improved,  to  lay  open,  to  the  attention  of  the  public,  certain 
evils,  and,  if  need  be,  to  bring  legislation  into  play  to  re- 
dress them.  The  novels  written  by  Chas.  Dickens  are  of 
this  class. 

Fiction  is  one  of  the  latest  departments  of  literature,  yet 
one  of  the  most  e.xteiisive.     Its  growth  is  wonderful;   sup- 


PROSE  COMPOSITION.  323 

ply  keeps  pace  with  an  ever  increasing  demand.  Though 
fiction  gives  insight  into  human  nature,  teaches  history, 
lays  bare  the  shams  of  social  life,  probes  festering  evils, 
abounds  in  striking  thoughts  and  rare  descriptions,  and 
possesses  all  the  wealth  of  style,  yet  it  should  not  be  read 
to  the  neglect  of  other  branches  of  literature.  The  youth 
of  our  country  should  be  restrained  in  novel  reading;  it 
should  be  read  as  an  amusement  and  a  relaxation,  only 
alternating  with  more  solid  reading. 

The  greater  part  of  the  fiction  now  published  and  read 
has  no  other  object  than  mere  pleasure,  and  that  not  of  a 
pure  kind ;  the  reading  of  such  novels  is  a  mere  mental 
dissipation,  unfitting  the  reader  to  enjoy  literature  of  a 
more  elevated  kind,  or  to  properly  perform  the  active 
duties  of  life.  To  become  intensely  alive  to  fancied  suffer- 
ing, and  be  kindled  to  warm  sympathy  with  fictitious  per- 
sonages without  opportunity  to  express  these  feelings  by 
acts,  and  to  do  what  he  is  moved  to  do,  are  unhealthful, 
and  tend  to  deaden  him  to  the  woes  and  sufferings  of  the 
real  world. 

News. 

News  forms  a  most  extensive  branch  of  literature.  Next 
to  letter-writing,  there  is  no  species  of  composition  of  which 
so  much  is  done. 

The  daily  newspaper  contains  the  only  literature  that 
reaches  a  large  proportion  of  the  people,  and  it  should 
therefore  embody  the  best  qualities  of  literary  style.  Very 
generally,  however,  this  is  not  the  case. 

One  of  the  most  common  and  serious  faults  of  news^ 
writers  is  the  use  of  slang  words  and  phrases.  This  is  too 
often  mistaken  for  wit. 


-324  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

Newspapers  are  frequently  below  the  standard  of  pure 
English ;  the  pupil  should  therefore  bear  in  mind  that  words 
are  not  to  be  accepted  simply  because  they  are  used  by  the 
morning  journals. 

In  addition  to  the  use  of  pure,  grammatical  English,  the 
qualities  of  style  to  be  cultivated  by  a  writer  of  news  are 
accuracy,  condensation,  and  clearness. 

1.  Accuracy  in  a  news  item  has  a  twofold  signification. 
The  language  should  accurately  convey  the  meaning  which 
the  writer  intends,  and  the  facts  themselves  should  be 
undeniable.  A  careful  selection  of  words,  and  a  proper 
construction  of  sentences,  will  enable  the  writer  to  express 
himself  so  that  his  meaning  can  not  be  mistaken. 

2.  Condensation  requires  that  the  writer  should  give 
his  information  in  the  briefest  manner  consistent  with  clear- 
ness of  statement.  It  does  not  imply  that  he  should  sup- 
press the  details  of  an  occurrence,  for  these  the  reader  will 
demand.  He  should,  however,  state  a  fact  but  once,  and 
that  in  concise  language. 

3.  Clearness  is  most  imperatively  demanded  of  a  news 
writer.  People  read  news  in  haste,  hence  the  meaning 
should  be  so  plain  that  "he  may  run  that  readeth  it." 

The  business  of  writing  news  is  very  different  from  that 
of  writing  editorials.  The  one  simply  records  the  facts  of 
tile  day  ;  the  other  discusses  those  facts,  and  gives  opinions 
about  them,  commending  or  condemning,  explaining  or 
defending,  persuading  and  exhorting,  assigning  causes  and 
suggesting  remedies.  The  one  writes  with  .special  reference 
to  accuracy,  clearness,  and  brevity ;  the  other  employs  al- 
most every  grace  and  excellence  of  st)'le  known  to  rhetoric, 
and  needs  for  his  task  a  knowledge  as  varied  as  the  entire 
range  of  subjects  included  in  the  scope  of  his  paper. 


PROSE  COMPOSITION.  325 


EXERCISES  IN  PARAPHRASE  AND  COMPOSITION. 


GRACE   DARLING. 

Among  the  dwellers  in  the  silent  fields 
The  natural  heart  is  touched,  and  public  way 
And  crowded  street  resound  with  ballad  strains, 
Inspired  by  one  whose  very  name  bespeaks 
Favor  divine,  exalting  human  love ; 
Whom,  since  her  birth  on  bleak  Northumbria's  coast, 
Known  unto  few,  but  prized  as  far  as  known, 
A  single  Act  endears  to  high  and  low 
Through  the  whole  land — to  Manhood,  moved  in  spite 
Of  the  world's  freezing  cares — to  generous  Youth — 
To  Infancy,  that  lisps  her  praise — to  Age, 
Whose  eye  reflects  it,  glistening  through  a  tear 
Of  tremulous  admiration.     Such  true  fame 
Awaits  her  now ;  but,  verily,  good  deeds 
Uo  not  imperishable  record  find 
Save  in  the  rolls  of  heaven,  where  hers  may  live 
A  theme  for  angels,  when  they  celebrate 
The  high-souled  virtues  which  forgetful  earth 
Has  witnessed.    Oh  !  that  winds  and  waves  could  speak 
Of  things  which  their  united  power  called  forth 
From  the  pure  depths  of  her  humanity  ! 
A  Maiden  gentle,  yet,  at  duty's  call, 
Firm  and  unflinching  as  the  Light-house  reared 
On  the  Island-rock,  her  lonely  dwelling-place.      *     *     * 
All  night  the  storm  had  raged,  nor  ceased,  nor  paused, 
When,  as  day  broke,  the  Maid,  through  misty  air. 
Espies  far  off  a  Wreck  amid  the  surf. 
Beating  on  one  of  those  disastrous  isles- 
Half  of  a  Vessel,  half — no  more;  the  rest 
Had  vanished,  swallowed  up  with  all  that  there 
Had  for  the  common  safety  striven  in  vain. 


326  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Or  thither  thronged  for  refuge.     With  quick  glance 

Daughter  and  Sire  through  optic-glass  discern, 

Clinging  about  the  remnants  of  this  Ship, 

Creatures,  how  precious  in  the  Maiden's  sight! 

For  whom,  belike,  the  old  Man  grieves  still  more 

Than  for  their  fellow-sufferers  engulfed 

Where  every  parting  agony  is  hushed, 

And  hope  and  fear  mix  not  in  further  strife. 

"  But  courage.  Father  !  let  us  out  to  sea — 

A  few  may  yet  be  saved."     The  Daughter's  words, 

Her  earnest  tone,  and  look  beaming  with  faith. 

Dispel  the  Father's  doubts :  nor  do  they  lack 

The  noble-minded  Mother's  helping  hand 

To  launch  the  boat;  and  with  her  blessing  cheered, 

And  inwardly  sustained  by  silent  prayer. 

Together  they  put  forth.  Father  and  Child  ! 

Each  grasps  an  oar,  and  struggling  on  they  go — 

Rivals  in  effort;  and,  alike  intent 

Here  to  elude  and  there  surmount,  they  watch 

The  billows  lengthening,  mutually  crossed 

And  shattered,  and  regathering  their  might ; 

As  if  the  tumult,  by  the  Almighty's  will 

W'ere,  in  the  conscious  sea,  roused  and  prolonged 

That  woman's  fortitude — so  tried — so  proved 

May  brighten  more  and  more ! 

True  to  the  mark. 
They  stem  the  current  of  that  perilous  gorge, 
Their  arms  still  strengthening  with  the  strengthening  heart. 
Though  danger,  as  the  Wreck  is  neared,  becomes 
More  imminent.     Not  unseen  do  they  approach ; 
And  rapture,  with  varieties  of  fear 
Incessantly  conflicting,  thrills  the  frames 
Of  those  who,  in  that  dauntless  energy, 
Foretaste  deliverance  ;  but  the  least  perturbed 
Can  scarcely  trust  his  eyes,  when  he  perceives 
That  of  the  pair — tossed  on  the  waves  to  bring 
Hope  to  the  hopeless,  to  the  dying,  life — 
One  is  a  Woman,  a  poor  earthly  sister; 
Or,  be  the  Visitant  other  than  she  seems. 


PROSE  COMPOSITION.  327 

A  guardian  Spirit  sent  from  pitying  Heaven, 

In  woman's  shape.     But  why  prolong  the  tale, 

Casting  meek  words  amid  a  host  of  thoughts 

Armed  to  repel  them  ?     Every  hazard  faced 

And  difficulty  mastered,  with  resolve 

That  no  one  breathing  should  be  left  to  perish, 

This  last  remainder  of  the  crew  are  all 

Placed  in  the  little  boat,  then  o'er  the  deep 

Are  safely  borne,  landed  upon  the  beach, 

And,  in  fulfillment  of  God's  mercy,  lodged 

Within  the  sheltering  Light-house.     Shout,  ye  Waves ! 

Send  forth  a  song  of  triumph.     Waves  and  Winds, 

Exult  in  this  deliverance  wrought  through  faith 

In  Him  whose  Providence  your  rage  hath  served! 

Ye  screaming  Sea-mews,  in  the  concert  join  ! 

And  would  that  some  immortal  Voice — a  Voice 

Fitly  attuned  to  all  that  gratitude 

Breathes  out  from  floor  or  couch  through  palhd  lips 

Of  the  survivors — to  the  clouds  might  bear — 

Blended  with  praise  of  that  parental  love. 

Beneath  whose  watchful  eye  the  Maiden  grew 

Pious  and  pure,  modest  and  yet  so  brave, 

Though  young  so  wise,  though  meek  so  resolute — 

Might  carry  to  the  clouds  and  to  the  stars, 

Yea,  to  celestial  Choirs,  Grace  Darling's  name  ! 

Wordsworth. 

DE  VEL 0PM ENT  XVII. 

BRANKSOME-HALL. 

NiNE-AND-TWENTY  knights  of  fame 

Hung  their  shields  in  Branksome-Hall ; 
Nine-and-twenty  squires  of  name 

Brought  them  their  steeds  to  bower  from  stall ; 
Nine-and-twenty  yeomen  tall 
Waited,  duteous,  on  them  all : 
They  were  all  knights  of  mettle  true, 
Kinsmen  to  the  bold  Buccleuch. 


328  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Ten  of  them  were  sheathed  in  steel, 
With  belted  sword  and  spur  on  heel : 
They  quitted  not  their  harness  bright, 
Neither  by  day  nor  yet  by  night : 

They  lay  down  to  rest, 

With  corslet  laced, 
Pillowed  on  buckler  cold  and  hard  ; 

They  carved  at  the  meal 

With  gloves  of  steel. 
And  they  drank  the  red  wine  through  the  helmet  barred. 

Ten  squires,  ten  yeomen,  mail-clad  men. 
Waited  the  beck  of  the  warders  ten  ; 
Thirty  steeds,  both  fleet  and  wight. 
Stood  saddled  in  stable  day  and  nigjit; 
Barbed  with  frontlet  of  steel,  I  trow. 
And  with  Jedwood-axe  at  saddle-bow ; 
A  hundred  more  fed  free  in  stall  : — 
Such  was  the  custom  of  Branksome-Hall. 

Sir  Walter  Scott. 

DEVELOPMENT  XVIII. 

THE    ROBIN. 

The  fowls  of  heaven, 

Tamed  by  the  cruel  season,  crowd  around 

The  winnowing  store,  and  claim  the  little  boon 

Which  Providence  assigns  them.     One  alone, 

The  redbreast,  sacred  to  the  household  gods, 

Wisely  regardful  of  the  embroiling  sky, 

In  joyless  fields  and  thorny  thickets  leaves 

His  shivering  mates,  and  pays  to  trusted  man 

His  annual  visit.     Half-afraid,  he  first 

Against  the  window  beats;  then,  brisk,  alights 

On  the  warm  hearth  ;  then,  hopping  o'er  the  floor, 

Eyes  all  the  smiling  family  askance. 

And  pecks,  and  starts,  and  wonders  where  he  is ; 

Till,  more  f;imiliar  grown,  the  table-crumbs 

Attract  his  slender  feet. 

James  Thomson. 


PROSE  COMPOSITION.  329 


DEVELOPMENT  XIX. 

REQUIESCAT. 

Fair  is  her  cottage  in  its  place, 
Where  yon  broad  water  sweetly,  slowly  glides. 

It  sees  itself  from  thatch  to  base 
Dream  in  the  sliding  tides. 

And  fairer  she,  but,  ah,  how  soon  to  die ! 

Her  quiet  dream  of  life  this  hour  may  cease. 
Her  peaceful  being  slowly  passes  by 

To  some  more  perfect  peace. 

Alfred  Tennyson. 

Weave  into  this  a  story  of  some  one  well  known  to  you, 
and  whose  home  you  may  suppose  this  "fair  cottage"  to 
be;  change  the  character,  if  necessary,  to  suit  your  pur- 
pose. In  thus  introducing  narration,  do  not  forget  that 
the  theme  is  principally  descriptive,  and  that  you  should 
aim  to  produce  a  vivid  picture  of  the  scene. 


DE  VEL  OPMENT  XX. 

JACK   FROST. 

RusTiLY  creak  the  crickets:  Jack  Frost  came  down  last  night. 
He  slid  to  the  earth  on  a  starlieam,  keen  and  sparkling  and  bright  ; 
He  sought  in  the  grass  for  the  crickets  with  delicate  icy  spear, 
So  sharp  and  fine  and  fatal,  and  he  stabbed  them  far  and  near. 
Only  a  few  stout  fellows,  thawed  by  the  morning  sun. 
Chirrup  a  mournful  echo  of  by-gone  frolic  and  fun. 
But  yesterday  such  a  rippling  chorus  ran  all  over  the  land. 
Over  the  hills  and  the  valleys,  down  to  the  gray  sea-sand. 
Millions  of  merry  harlequins,  skipping  and  dancing  in  glee. 
Cricket  and  locust  and  grasshopper,  happy  as  happy  could  be. 
Scooping  rich  caves  in  ripe  apples,  and  feeding  on  honey  and  spice, 
Rhet.— 28. 


330  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Drunk  with  the  mellow  sunshine,  nor  dreaming  of  spears  of  ice  ! 

Was  it  not  enough  that  the  crickets  your  weapon  of  power  should  pierce? 

Pray  what  have  you  done  to  the  flowers  ?  Jack  Frost,  you  are  cruel  and  fierce. 

With  never  a  sign  or  a  whisper,  you  kissed  them,  and,  lo!  they  exhale 

Their  beautiful  lives;  they  are  drooping,  their  sweet  color  ebbs,  they  are  pale. 

They  fade  and  they  die!     See  the  pansies,  yet  striving  so  hard  to  unfold 

Their  garments  of  velvety  splendor,  all  Tyrian  purple  and  gold. 

But  how  weary  they  look,  and  how  withered,  like  handsome  court  dames, 

who  all  night 
Have  danced  at  the  ball  till  sunrise  struck  chill  to  their  hearts  with  its  light. 
Where  hides  the  wood-aster  ?     She  vanished  as  snow-wreaths  dissolve  in 

the  sun 
The  moment  you  touched  her.    Look  yonder,  where  sober  and  gray  as  a  nun 
The  maple-tree  stands  that  at  sunset  was  blushing  as  red  as  the  sky; 
At  its  foot,  glowing  scarlet  as  fire,  its  robes  of  magnificence  lie, 
Despoiler !  stripping  the  world  as  you  strip  the  shivering  tree 
Of  color  and  sound  and  perfume,  scaring  the  bird  and  the  bee, 
Turning  beauty  to  ashes — O  to  join  the  swift  swallows  and  fly 
Far  away  out  of  sight  of  your  mischief!   I  give  you  no  welcome,  not  I ! 

Celia  Thaxter. 


DE  VEL  OPMENT  XXL 

A  WINTER  SABBATH   WALK. 

How  dazzling  white  the  snowy  scene !  deep,  deep 
The  stillness  of  the  winter  Sabbath  day — 
Not  even  a  foot-fall  heard.     Smooth  are  the  fields, 
Each  hollow  pathway  level  with  the  plain : 
Hid  are  the  bushes,  save  that  here  and  there 
Are  seen  the  topmost  shoots  of  brier  or  broom. 
High-ridged,  the  whirled  drift  has  almost  reached 
The  powdered  key-stone  of  the  church-yard  porch. 
Mute  hangs  the  hooded  bell;  the  tombs  lie  buried; 
No  step  approaches  to  the  house  of  prayer. 

The  flickering  fall  is  o'er:  the  clouds  disperse, 
And  show  the  sun,  hung  o'er  the  welkin's  verge, 
Shooting  a  bright  but  ineffectual  beam 
On  all  the  sparkling  waste. 


PROSE  COMPOSITION.  331 


How  beautiful  the  plain  stretched  far  below, 
Unvaried  though  it  be,  sa\'e  by  yon  stream 
With  azure  windings,  or  the  leafless  wood ! 
But  what  the  beauty  of  the  plain,  compared 
To  that  sublimity  which  reigns  enthroned, 
Holding  joint  rule  with  solitude  divine. 
Among  yon  rocky  fells  that  bid  defiance 
To  steps  the  most  adventurously  bold  ? 
There  silence  dwells  profound;  or  if  the  cry 
Of  high  poised  eagle  break  at  times  the  hush,    ' 
The  mantled  echoes  no  response  return. 

James  Grahame. 


DE  VEL  0PM E NT  XXII. 


THE  ANGLER. 

An  angler  by  a  brook  doth  lie ; 

Upon  his  hook,  a  painted  fly ; 

A  dream's  soft  shadow  in  his  eye. 

Thus,  like  a  charmed  prince  he  seems. 
Destined  a  glorious  prize  to  win. 
Which,  like  a  jeweled  javelin, 
Poised,  as  in  air,  on  quivering  fin 

Before  his  vision  gleams. 

With  purest  blue,  the  blissful  sky 
Pavilions  him  right  royally. 
Sometimes  an  oriole  flames  on  high  ; 
A  bee,  impetuous,  sparkles  by; 

A  bobolink,  ecstatic,  flings 
Bubbles  of  music  down  the  air ; 
And  so  he  gathers  everywhere 
From  realms  of  ease,  all  joys  most  rare, 

Like  pearls  on  silken  strings. 

A  Masque  of  Poets. 


332  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


DE  VEL  0PM ENT  XXIII. 


SOUNDS  AT  EVENING. 

Sweet  was  the  sound,  when  oft,  at  evening's  close. 

Up  yonder  hill  the  village  murmur  rose. 

There,  as  I  passed  with  careless  steps  and  slow, 

The  mingling  notes  came  softened  from  below ; 

The  swain  responsive  as  the  milk-maid  sung, 

The  sober  herd  that  lowed  to  meet  their  young, 

The  noisy  geese  that  gabbled  o'er  the  pool. 

The  playful  children  just  let  loose  from  school, 

The  watch-dog's  voice  that  bayed  the  whispering  wind, 

And  the  loud  laugh  that  spoke  the  vacant  mind  ; — 

These  all  in  sweet  confusion  sought  the  shade. 

And  filled  each  pause  the  nightingale  had  made. 

Oliver  Goldsmith. 


DEVELOPMENT  XXIV. 


THE   MONEV-SEEKER. 

What  has  he  in  this  glorious  world's  domain  ? 
Unreckoned  loss  which  he  counts  up  as  gain  ; 
Unreckoned  shame,  of  which  he  feels  no  stain ; 
Unreckoned  dead  he  does  not  know  were  slain. 

What  things  does  he  take  with  him  when  he  dies  ? 
Nothing  of  all  that  he  on  earth  did  prize : 
Unto  his  groveling  feet  and  sordid  eyes 
How  difficult  and  empty  seem  the  skies ! 

A  Masque  of  Poets. 


PROSE  COMPOSITION.  333 


DE  VEL  OPMENT  XXV. 

MOTH-EATEN. 

I  HAD  a  beautiful  garment, 

And  I  laid  it  by  with  care ; 
I  folded  it  close,  with  lavender  leaves, 

In  a  napkin  fine  and  fair  : 
"  It  is  far  too  costly  a  robe,"  I  said, 

"  For  one  like  me  to  wear." 

There  were  guests* who  came  to  my  portal, 
There  were  friends  who  sat  with  me ; 

And  clad  in  soberest  raiment 
I  bore  them  company ; 

I  knew  that  I  owned  a  beautiful  robe, 
Though  its  splendor  none  might  see. 

There  tvere  poor  that  stood  at  my  portal, 
There  were  orphaned  sought  my  care; 

I  gave  them  the  tenderest  pity, 
But  had  nothing  beside  to  spare  ; 

I  had  only  the  beautiful  garment, 
And  the  raiment  for  daily  wear. 

At  last  on  a  feast-day's  coming, 
I  thought  in  my  dress  to  shine ; 

I  would  please  myself  with  the  luster 
Of  its  shifting  colors  fine  ; 

I  would  walk  with  pride  in  the  marvel 
Of  its  rarely-rich  design. 

So  out  from  the  dusk  I  bore  it, — 

The  lavender  fell  away,— 
And  fold  on  fold  I  held  it  up 

To  the  searching  light  of  day. 
Alas  !  the  glory  had  perished 

While  there  in  its  place  it  lay. 


334  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Who  seeks  for  fadeless  beauty 

Must  seek  for  the  use  that  seals, 
To  the  grace  of  a  constant  blessing, 

The  beauty  that  use  reveals ; 
For  into  the  folded  robe  alone 

The  moth  with  its  blighting  steals. 

Margaret  E.  Sangster. 


DE  VEL  OPMENT  XXVI. 

RESPECT    THE    BURDEN. 

• 

Great  Garibaldi,  through  the  streets  one  day 

Passing  triumphant,  while  admiring  throngs 

With  acclamations  and  exultant  songs 

For  the  uncrowned  kingly  man  made  way, 

Met  one  poor  knave,  'neath  heavy  burden  bowed, 

Indifferent  to  the  hero  and  the  crowd. 

• 
His  zealous  followers  would  have  driven  aside 

The  sorry  creature,  but  that  good  man  said, 

Laying  a  kind  hand  on  the  suffering  head, 
"  Respect  the  burden."     Then,  majestic-eyed 
He  paused,  and  passed  on,  no  man  saying  him  nay; 
The  heavy-laden  also  went  his  way. 

Thou  happy  soul,  who  journeyest  like  a  king 
Along  the  rose-strewn  road,  whate'er  thy  lot, 
"  Respect  the  burden."     Thou  mayst  see  it,  or  not, 

For  one  heart  is  to  another  a  sealed  thing : 

Laughter  there  is  which  hideth  sobs  or  moans ; 

Firm  footsteps  may  leave  blood-prints  on  the  stones. 

Respect  the  burden,  whatsoe'er  it  be. 

Whether  loud  outcries  vex  the  startled  air, 

Or  in  dumb  agonies  of  loss,  despair 
Lifts  her  still  face,  so  hke  tranquillity  ; 

Though  each  strained  heart-string  break,  she  never  shrinks; 
Says,  "  Let  this  cup  pass  from  me,"  stoops  and  drinks. 


PROSE  COMPOSITION.  335 

O  heavy  burden  !  why  't  is  borne,  or  how, 

None  know — save  those  who  bear,  and  He  whose  hand 

Has  laid  it  on,  saying,  "My  beloved,  stand 
Upright,  and  take  this  chrism  upon  thy  brow, 
God's  own  anointed.  Sore  thy  load  may  be. 
But  know — within  it  thou  art  carrying  me." 

Dinah  Maria  Mulock. 


DEVELOPMENT  XXVII. 

THE  THREE   FISHERS. 

Three  fishers  went  sailing  away  to  the  West, 

Away  to  the  West  as  the  sun  went  down  ; 
Each  thought  on  the  woman  who  loved  him  the  best. 
And  the  children  stood  watching  them  out  of  the  town  ; 
For  men  must  work,  and  women  must  weep. 
And  there 's  little  to  earn,  and  many  to  keep, 
Though  the  harbor-bar  be  moaning. 

Three  wives  sat  up  in  the  light-house  tower, 

And  they  trimmed  the  lamps  as  the  sun  went  down  ; 
They  looked  at  the  squall,  and  they  looked  at  the  shower, 
And  the  night-rack  came  rolling  up  ragged  and  brown  : 
But  men  must  work,  and  women  must  weep. 
Though  storms  be  sudden,  and  waters  deep. 
And  the  harbor-bar  be  moaning. 

Three  corpses  lay  out  on  the  shining  sands, 

In  the  morning  gleam,  as  the  tide  went  down, 

And  the  women  are  weeping,  and  wringing  their  hands 

For  those  who  will  never  come  home  to  the  town  ; 

For  men  must  work,  and  women  must  weep. 

And  the  sooner  it 's  over,  the  sooner  to  sleep  ; 

And  good-by  to  the  bar  and  its  moaning. 

Charles  Kingsley. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

PROSODY    AND    VERSIFICATION. 

Prosody,  from  the  Greek  prosodia,  {pros,  to,  and  ode,  a 
song,)  is  that  division  of  rhetoric  which  treats  of  versifica- 
tion, or  the  art  of  composing  poetic  verse. 

Verse  is  that  species  of  composition  in  which  the  words 
are  arranged  in  Hnes  containing  a  definite  number  and  suc- 
cession of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables;  as, 

By  faith,  |  and  faith  |  alone,  |  embrace, 
Believ|ing  where  |  we  can  |  not  prove. 

Verse  (Latin  vcrtcrc,  to  turn.),  is  so  called  because  when 
a  line  is  completed  the  writer  turns  back,  and  begins  an- 
other. A  verse  is  a  single  line  of  poetry,  made  up  of  feet, 
and  named  from  the  kind  and  number  of  feet  in  a  line. 

As  poetry  is  properly  a  versified  composition,  in  treating 
of  its  form  all  that  is  essential  may  be  grouped  under  three 
heads:  (i)  Meter;   (2)  Rhyme;  (3)  Stanza. 

Meter. 

Meter  (Greek  metron,  a  measure),  is  the  arrangement  into 
verse  of  definite  measures  of  sounds  definitely  accented. 
As  we  use  the  term,  it  more  strictly  refers  to  the  number 
of  feet  in  the  respective  lines,  and  varies  with  the  number 
of  the  accejitcd  syWahXes.     In  English,  meter  depends  almost 

wholly  upon  the  accent,  or  rhythm. 

( ii,^ ) 


PROSODY  AND  VERSIFICATION.  337 

Rhythm  is  the  recurrence  of  stress  at  regular  intervals. 
Practically  speaking,  rhythm  refers  to  the  kind  of  feet,  and 
varies  with  the  niunber  oi  the  unaccented  syllables  and  the 
place  of  the  accent  in  the  feet. 

It  is  from  rhythm  that  English  verse  derives  its  charac- 
ter. In  this  respect,  English  meter  differs  from  the  clas- 
sical meters,  which  are  constructed  principally  according  to 
the  length,  or  quantity,  of  the  vowels.  Thus,  in  English 
verse  we  speak  of  syllables  as  accented  or  unaccented,  while 
Greek  and  Latin  verse  is  measured  by  syllables  regarded  as 
long  or  short. 

A  foot,  or  measure,  is  a  portion  of  a  line  consisting  of 
tw^o  or  three  syllables  (aadJiot-«i<»re),  combined  according 
to  accent. 

Each  perfect  line  is  composed  of  a  certain  number  of 
equal  parts,  or  "feet":  these  correspond  to  bars  in  musical 
melody.  The  accented  part  in  a  foot  always  consists  of  a 
single  syllable ;  the  interval  generally  consists  of  a  single 
syllable  intervening  between  the  accents,  though  it  may 
consist  of  two  syllables  sounded  in  the  same  time  as  one. 
This  is  illustrated  by  the  occurrence  of  feet  of  two  and 
of  three  syllables  in  the  same  line ;  as, 

My  thoughts  |  still  cling  |  to  the  mold|ering  Past, 
But  the  hopes  |  of  youth  |  fall  thick  |  in  the  blast. 

Between  two  accented  syllables  in  English  verse  there 
may  occur  one  or  two,  but  not  more  than  two,  unaccented 
syllables. 

A  foot  is  not  necessarily  a  single  word.     It  may  consist  of: 

(i)   A  succession  of  monosyllables;  as, 

And  what  |  is  the  shore  |  where  I  stood  |  to  see 
My  boat  |  sail  down  |  the  west  ? 

Rhct.— 29. 


338  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

(2)  Parts  of  polysyllables;  as, 

A  long  I  and  mellanchol|y  mew. 

The  division  of  a  verse  or  line  into  feet  is  called  scanning. 
A  straight  line  (— )  over  a  syllable  shows  that  it  is  accented ; 
a  curved  line  (-)  shows  that  it  is  unaccented.  In  verse, 
monosyllables  may  receive  accent,  although  they  are  with- 
out it  in  prose;  as, 

And  in  no  quiet  canst  thou  be. 
Two  syllables  may  sometimes  be  contracted  into  one ;  as. 

O'er  man|y  a  froz|en,  man|y  a  fi|ery  Alp. 

Elision  is  the  running  together  of  two  syllables  into  one 
by  the  dropping  of  one  or  more  letters.  This  may  some- 
times be  necessary  in  English  verse,  but  some  of  the  best 
critics  claim  that  in  all  cases  it  can  be  avoided  by  suppos- 
ing that,  where  it  seems  to  be  needed,  the  poet  substituted 
a  trisyllabic  foot  for  a  dissyllabic.      In  the  verse — 

Blest  as  |  the  immor\X.-A  gods  |  is  he  — 

we  must  run  tJic  and  /;;/  of  the  second  foot  together,  if  we 
would  preserve  the  dissyllabic  foot  throughout.  But,  if  we 
regard  the  second  foot  trisyllabic,  there  is  no  need  of  elis- 
ion. 

Some  of  the  older  critics  supposed  that  in  verse,  where 
the  feet  consist  of  two  syllables  each,  these  particular  feet 
must  be  reduced  to  two  syllables,  both  in  pronunciation 
and  in  writing.  The  following  from  Butler's  Hiidibras  is 
an  instance  of  needless  elision : 

We  grant  ]  although  |  he  had  |  much  wit, 
H'  was  ver]y  shy  |  of  us|ing  it. 


PROSODY  AND  VERSIFICATION.  339 

Poetic  Feet. — The  kinds  of  feet  most  used  in  English 
are  four ;  namely,  the  iambus,  the  trochee,  the  anapest,  the 
dactyl. 

Iambus. —  The  mul|titude  |  of  an|gels,  with  |  a  shout. 

In  this  line  the  five  accents  give  the  character  and  the 
meter  also  oi  jive  feet.  This  foot  of  two  syllables,  with  the 
accent  on  the  last,  is  called  an  iambus  {^  -),  and  the 
rhythm  of  such  feet,  iambic. 

Trochee. — Great  men  |  die  and  |  are  for  [gotten. 

In  this  line  the  number  of  accents  gives  a  meter  of 
four  feet ;  and  the  accent,  falling  on  \ki&  first  of  the  two 
syllables,  thus  changes  the  rhythm.  This  foot  is  called  a 
trochee  (-  -),  and  the  rhythm  of  such  feet,  trochaic. 


Anapest. — For  the  sun  |  set  of  hfe  |  gives  me  mys|tical  lore. 

In  this  line  we  have  twelve  syllables,  but  the  same  num- 
ber  of  natural  accents  as  in  the  line  of  only  eight  syllables 
above,  and  so  the  same  niimber  of  feet,  or  the  same  ' '  meter. " 
But  the  rhythm  and  the  measure  are  greatly  changed  by 
double  the  number  of  unaccented  syllables  in  these  four 
feet.  This  trisyllabic  foot,  with  the  accent  on  the  last 
syllable,  is  called  an  anapest  (^  ^  -),  and  the  rhythm  of  such 
feet,  anapcstic. 

Dactyl. — Bird  of  the  [  wilderness, 

Blithesome  and  |  cumberless, 

Sweet  be  thy  |  matin  o'er  |  moorland  and  |  lea! 

Emblem  of  |  happiness, 

Blest  is  thy  |  dwelling-place! 
O,  to  a]bide  in  the  |  desert  with  |  thee ! 

In  these  lines,  the  meter  changes  from  two  feet  to  four 


340  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

in  every  third  line ;  while  the  rJiytJun  is  the  same  except 
in  the  last  foot  of  the  longer  lines,  where  ' '  lea ' '  and  ' '  thee  ' ' 
— the  one  long  syllable  in  each  line — pleasantly  break  the 
monotony  of  the  regular  foot.  This  foot  of  three  syllables, 
with  the  accent  on  the  first,  is  called  a  dactyl  (-  -  -),  and 
the  rhythm  of  such  feet,  dactylic. 

Every  poem  in  the  English  language  of  any  character, 
whatever  the  meter,  is  founded  on  one  or  another  of  the 
four  "regular  feet"  illustrated  above.  But  this  perfect 
regularity  of  any  standard  measure,  which  so  pleases  the 
ear  for  a  while,  becomes  monotonous  if  not  in  some  way 
varied  now  and  then.  In  many  poems  the  various  meters 
are  combined, — iambics  in  one  line  being  followed  by  tro- 
chees in  another,  and  dactyls  by  anapests.  These  combi- 
nations are  almost  endless,  and  yet  verse  may  be  still  further 
varied  by  the  introduction  of  secondary  feet.  They  are 
as  follows: 

(i)  The  spondee,  two  accented  syllables,  (" -). 

(2)  The  pyrrhic,  two  unaccented  syllables,  (^'-). 

(3)  The  amphibrach,  first  unaccented,  second  accented, 
third  unaccented,  (-  -  -). 

(4)  The  tribrach,  three  unaccented  syllables,  (---). 

Mixed  Verse. — Sometimes  the  verse  is  so  varied  by  an 
intermixture  of  the  different  kinds  of  feet  that  it  is  difficult 
to  recognize  the  preponderance  of  any  one  kind  of  foot. 
Some  attempts  have  been  made  in  English  to  write  con- 
tinued poems  in  this  kind  of  verse.  Longfellow  has  given 
us  conspicuous  examples  in  The  Courtship  0/ Miles  Standish, 
and  the  soliloquy  of  Friar  Claus  from  the  Golden  Legend. 
The  first  may  be  described  as  prevailingly  dactylic,  but 
with  a  free  intermixture  of  iambuses,  trochees,  anapests, 
and  spondees. 


PROSODY  AND  VERSIFICATION.  34I 

Hawtrey,  in  the  following  lines,  has  given  perhaps  the 
most  successful  specimen  of  this  verse  ever  produced : 


Clearly  the  |  rest  I  be|hold  of  the  |  dark-eyed  |  sons  of  A|chaia; 
Known  tome  |  well  are  the  |  faces  of  |  all;  their  |  names  I  re|member; 
Two,  two  I  only  re|main,  whom  I  |  see  not  a|mong  the  com]manders, 
Castor  I  fleet  in  the  |  car,  Poly|deuces  |  brave  with  the  |  cestus. 
Another  fine  example  is  found  in  Boker's  Ivory  Carver: 

Silently  |  sat  the  |  artist  ajlone, 

Carving  a  |  Christ  from  the  |  i^•ory  |  bone. 

Little  by  |  little,  |  with  toil  |  and  pain, 

He  won  |  his  way  |  through  the  sight|less  grain, 

That  held  |  and  yet  hid  |  the  thing  |  he  sought, 

Till  the  work  |  stood  up,  |  a  growjing  thought. 

Mixed  verse  seems  to  succeed  best  when  combined  with 
rhyme,  and  when  the  lines  are  comparatively  short 

Kinds  of  Verse. —  Verse  is  named  according  to  two 
characteristics : 

1.  According  to  the  kind  of  foot  prevailing  in  a  line. 

2.  According  to  the  number  of  feet  contained  in  a  line. 
We  have  seen  how  the  kind  of  foot  characterizes  verse. 

Now  by  combining  the  name  of  the  foot — the  metric  unit 
by  which  the  line  is  measui"ed — and  the  name  for  the  num- 
ber of  feet  in  a  line,  we  can  accurately  de^ribe  the  jg^^ 
and  the  rhythm  of  any  poem. 

If  the  metric  unit,  or  foot,  is  contained  in  the  line  but 
once,  we  have  Mo7iometer,  a  line  of  one  foot;  if  twice, 
Dimeter,  a  line  of  two  feet ;  if  three  times.  Trimeter,  a  line 
of  three  feet;  if  four  times,   Tetrameter,  a  line  of  four  feet; 


342  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 

if  five  times,  Pentameter,  a  line  of  five  feet;  if  six  times, 
Hexameter,  a  line  of  six  feet ;  if  seven  times,  Heptameter, 
a  line  of  seven  feet;  if  eight  times,  Octojneter,  a  line  of 
eight  feet. 

The  combination  of  kind  of  foot  with  number  of  feet 
gives  rise  to  such  designations  as  iauibic  dimeter,  iambic 
trimeter,  etc.;  trochaic  dimeter,  trochaic  tctra^iicter,  etc.;  an- 
apestic  dimeter,  anapestic  trimeter,  etc. 

Iambic  Verse. — Of  all  measures,  the  iambic  is  the  mo.st 
easily  continued  to  great  length:  hence  it  is  in  very  com- 
mon use,  and  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  long  poems.  Until 
quite  recently,  about  nine  tenths  of  English  verse  was  iam- 
bic, and  probably  three  fourths  of  it  iambic  pentameter. 

Monoiiieter.  .How  sure. 

Dimeter  .  .  .With  rav|ished  ears. 

Trimeter.  .  .A  thoujsand  cups  |  of  gold. 

Tetrameter.  .Let  me  |  not  cast  |  to  end|less  shade. 

Pentameter.  .Roll  on,  |  thou  deep  |  and  dark  |  blue  0|cean — roll ! 

Hexameter.  .Celes|tial  as  |  thou  art,  |  O,  do  |  not  love  |  that  wrong. 

Heptameter.  He  looked  |  upon  |  his  peo|ple,  and  |  a  tear  |  was  in  |  his  eye. 

Octometer.  .  All  peo|ple  that  |  on  earth  |  do  dwell,  ]  sing  to  |  the  Lord  | 

with  cheer|ful  voice. 

The  iambic  vionometcr  and  dimeter  are  too  short  to  be 
continued  through  any  great  number  of  lines,  but  as  indi- 
vidual lines  they  arc  met  with  in  stanzas.      Thus : 

(^Trimeter')  No: — 'Tis  |  a  fast  |  to  dole, 

{Dimeter)  Thy  sheaf  |  of  wheat 

{.Ifonometer)  And  meat 

{Trimeter)  Unto  |  the  hun|gry  soul. 


PROSODY  AND  VERSIFICATION.  343 

The  iambic  trimeter  is  rarely  used  by  itself,  but  is  often 
found  in  combination  with  tetrameter,  these  two  alternating, 
and  with  divers  unions  of  rhymes.      Thus: 

We  build  |  with  fruitlless  cost,  |  unless 

The  Lord  |  the  pile  |  sustain; 
Unless  I  the  Lord  |  the  cit|y  keep, 

The  watchjman  wakes  ]  in  vain. 

Blest  be  |  the  tie  |  that  binds 

Our  hearts  |  in  Chris|tian  love: 
The  fel|lowship  |  of  kin|dred  minds 

Is  like  I  to  that  |  above. 

The  iambic  tetrameter  is  largely  used  uncombined ;  it  is 
the  meter  of  most  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's  works: 

The  way  |  was  long,  |  the  wind  was  cold, 
The  min]strel  was  |  infirm  |  and  old; 
His  withjered  cheek  |  and  tress|es  gray 
Seemed  to  |  have  known  [  a  bet|ter  day ; 
The  harp,  |  his  sole  |  remain|ing  joy, 
Was  car|ried  by  |  an  orlphan  boy. 

Iambic  pentameter  is  the  "heroic  measure"  of  English 
poetry.  Most  of  our  epic,  dramatic,  and  descriptive  po- 
etry is  written  in  iambic  pentameter.  In  its  rhymed  form 
it  is  the  measure  of  Chaucer,  Spenser,  Dryden,  Pope, 
Campbell,  and  Byron ;  as, 

Three  po|ets  in  |  three  dis|tant  alges  born, 
Greece,  lt|aly,  |  and  En|gland  did  |  adorn. 

In  its  unrhymed  form  the  iambic  pentameter  is  the 
stately  blank  verse  of  Milton  and  Wordsworth. 

The  iambic  hexameter  is  commonly  called  the  Alexan- 
drine, from  the  fact  that  old  French  poems  in  praise  of 
Alexander  were  written  in  this  measure.     It  is  now  sel- 


344  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

dom  used,  except  in  combination  with  other  measures. 
It  forms  the  last  Hne  of  the  Spenserian  stanza. 

The  iambic  Jieptanicter,  on  account  of  the  length  of  the 
line,  is  now  generally  divided  into  alternate  lines  of  four 
and  of  three  feet ;  so  divided,  it  is  the  counnon  jneter  of 
our  hymns,  and  the  favorite  meter  of  ballad  poetry. 

The  iambic  octomcter  is  usually  written  as  two  tetrame- 
ters. Each  couplet  of  this  meter  is  now  generally  printed 
as  a  stanza  of  four  tetrameter  lines,  rhyming  alternately, 
and  each  commencing  with  a  capital.  In  old  books,  how- 
ever, the  second  and  fourth  lines  are  made  to  begin  with 
a  small  letter.      It  forms  the  long  meter  of  our  hymns. 

The  scheme  of  any  particular  kind  of  verse  requires  a 
definite  number  of  syllables ;  when  the  verse  contains  just 
the  number  required,  it  is  Acatalectic  ;  when  the  sylla- 
bles are  too  few,  the  verse  is  Catalectic — deficient;  when 
there  is  an  additional  syllable,  the  verse  is  Hypercata- 
lectic — redundant. 

Trochaic  Verse. — In  trochaic  verse  the  accent  is  laid 
on  the  odd  syllables.  The  trochaic  measure  has  a  light, 
tripping  movement,  and  is  peculiarly  fitted  for  lively  sub- 
jects. 


Manometer 
Dimeter.  . 
T}i)neter  . 
Tetrameter 
Petitameter 
Hexameter 
Hepta7)ieter 


Highly. 

Children,  ]  choose  it. 
Singing  |  through  the  |  forests. 
Lauded  |  be  thy  |  name  forjever. 
Spake  full  |  well  in  |  language  |  quaint  and  |  olden. 
Holy!  I  holy!  |  holy!  |  all  the  |  saints  a|dore  thee. 
Hasten,  |  Lord,    to  |  rescue  |  me,    and  |  set    me  |  safe 
from  I  trouble. 


PROSODY  AND  VERSIFICATION.  34c 

Odometer    .  .  Once   up|on   a  |  midnight  |  dreary,  |  while    I  |  pon- 
dered I  weak  and  |  weary. 

The  mob  commcn  form  of  the  trochaic  meter  is  the 
tetrameter,  in  alternate  hnes  of  eight  syllables  and  seven. 
The  line  of  seven  syllables  is  denominated  catalectic ;  thus, 

Savior,  |  breathe  an  |  evening  |  blessing, 

Ere  re|pose  our  |  spirits  |  seal — 
Sin  and  |  want  we  |  come  con|fessing, 

Thou  canst  |  save  and  |  thou  canst  |  heal. 

This  forms  a  favorite  hymn  measure,  the  usual  8's  and 
7's  of  our  hymns. 

The  trochaic  pentameter  is  not  common,  nor  is  it  very 
melodious.      It  is  usually  catalectic. 

The  trochaic  hexameter  is  rare.  Sometimes  each  coup- 
let is  divided  into  alternate  lines  of  six  syllables  and  five. 
This  forms  the  trochaic  ii's  of  our  hymns. 

The  trochaic  oetometer  is  not  common ;  when  found  it  is 
usually  catalectic ;  as. 

In  the  I  spring  a  |  fuller  |  crimson  I  comes  up|on  the  ]  robin's  |  breast. 
In  the  I  spring  the  |  wanton  |  lapwing  |  gets  him|self  an|other  |  crest. 

Anapestic  Verse. — Anapests  have  been  in  current  use 
for  a  long  time.  This  is  a  very  pleasing  measure,  and 
much  used,  both  in  solemn  and  cheerful  subjects. 

Monomeier  .  .  But  in  vain. 

Dimeter    ...  In  my  rage  |  shall  be  seen. 

Trimeter  ...  I  am  mon|arch  of  all  |  I  survey. 

Tetrajneter  .  .  Tho'  his  life  |  be  a  dream  |  his  enjoy |ments  I  see. 

In  this  meter  lines  longer  than  tetrameter  are  rarely 
found. 


346  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Anapestic  verse  is  not  always  pure;  it  is  quite  as  often 
found  with  the  interchangeable  iambus  ( ^  )  occupying 
the  place  of  the  first  foot.     Thus: 

The  ran|somed  crea|tion,  .  .  .  Dimeter,  hypercatalectic,  with    --). 
Though  feejble  their  lays,    .  .  Dimeter,  acatalectic,  with  (--). 

With  true  I  adora|tion Dimeter,  hypercatalectic,  with  (--). 

Shall  lisp  I  to  Thy  praise  .  .  .  Dimeter,  acatalectic,  with  (--). 

The  few  |  lurid  morn|ings  that  dawn  |  on  us  here 

Tetrameter,  acatalectic,  with  (  --). 

Are  enough  |  for  life's  woes,  |  full  enough  |  for  its  cheer. 

Tetrameter,  acatalectic,  pure. 

When  through  |  the  torn  sail  |  the  wild  tem|pest  is 

stream|ing, 
When  o'er  |  the  dark  wave  |  the  red  light|ning  is 

gleam  ling. 

Dactylic  Verse. —  Dactylic  verse  was  but  sparingly 
used  in  English  until  the  present  century;  and,  although 
we  have  had  some  brilliant  examples,  it  is  not  yet  in  gen- 
eral use.  It  is  not  often  pure,  that  is,  composed  wholly 
of  dactyls :  a  spondee,  or  a  trochee,  or  one  long  syllable 
generally  forms  the  last  foot. 

The  dactylic  hexmneter  was  the  heroic  verse  of  the  Greeks 
and  Latins:  it  is  used  in  Homer's  Iliad  and  in  Virgil's 
yEncid.  In  it  a  spondee  or  a  dactyl  might  form  any  foot 
except  \\\Q  fifth,  which  was  usually  a  dactyl,  and  the  sixtJi, 
which  was  always  a  spondee.  Longfellow's  Evangeline  is 
written  in  imitation  of  the  classical  hexameter. 

Monovietcr  .  .  Fearfully. 

Dimeter .  .  .   .   Emblem  of  |  happiness. 


Tetrameter, 
hypercatalec- 
tic, with  (--). 


PROSODY  AND  VERSIFICATION.  347 

Trimeter  .  .  Wearing  a|way  in  his  |  youthfulness. 
Tetrameter .  Weary  way  |  wanderer,  |  languid  and  |  sick  at  heart. 
Hexameter.  Over  his  |  countenance  |  flitted  a  [  shadow  hke  |  those  on 
the  1  landscape. 

Dactylic  pentameters  and  Jieptavieters  are  very  rare. 
Dactylic  dimeter  seems  especially  appropriate  to  mourn- 
ing.    It  is  used  in  the  Bridge  of  Sighs : 

Take  her  up  1  tenderly, 

Lift  her  with  |  care; 
Fashioned  so  |  slenderly, 

Young,  and  so  |  fair! — Hood. 

Rhyme. 

Rhyme  is  a  correspondence  of  sound  at  the  end  of 
verses,  or  sometimes  at  intervals  in  the  verse.  It  was  not 
employed  in  ancient  poetry,  but  it  is  used  in  almost  all 
modern  verse.  It  is  (i)  Alliterative,  (2)  Assonantal,  and 
(3)  Consonantal. 

Alliterative  rhyme  is  the  correspondence  in  sound  of 
the  'first  letters  of  certain  words.  These  words  more  fre- 
quently succeed  each  other,  but  they  may  stand  at  no  great 
distance  apart.     Thus: 

He  rushed  into  the/ield,  and/oremost/ighting,/ell. 
That  /zeld  and  yet  hid  the  thing  he.  sought. 
Arms  on  Armor  clashing  brayed. 

Alliteration  formed  the  distinctive  mark  of  the  oldest 
English  poetry ;  it  was  the  only  kind  of  rhyme  used  in 
Anglo-Saxon  feayse.  Although  no  longer  a  regular  con- 
stituent of  Eng4ish  poetry,  it  is  sometimes  used  for  effect 


348  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

by  modern  authors ;   within  moderate  Hmits    it   promotes 
melody,  but  its  frequent  introduction  savors  of  affectation. 

Assonantal  rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  the  vowels 
at  the  end  of  two  lines ;  as, 

The  mighty  master  smiled  to  see 
That  love  was  in  the  ne.xt  degrt'^. 

Consonantal  rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  the  vowel 
and  the  final  consonant  or  consonants  in  the  rhyming  sylla- 
bles. This  is  the  most  common  rhyme  in  English  poetry; 
as, 

Nobody  knew  how  the  fisherman  hro7vn, 
With  a  look  of  despair  that  was  half  a  irown. 

To  form  a  perfect  consonantal  rhyme,  three  things  are 
essential: 

1.  That  the  vowel  and  the  parts  following  it  be  the  same. 

2.  That  the  parts  preceding  the  vowel  be  different. 

3.  That  the  rhyming  syllables  be  accented  alike. 

Thus  luing  and  ring,  breeze  and  tj'ces,  night  and  zvhite  are 
perfect  rhymes ;  but  7'ooni  and  hone,  war  and  car,  breathe 
and  tease,  are  not  perfect.  The  number  of  words  in  the 
English  language  which  form  perfect  rhymes  is  so  limited 
that  many  slight  deviations  are  sanctioned,  and  are  termed 
allowable  rhymes.  "Still,"  says  Angus,  "it  may  be  safely 
affirmed  that  rhyme  will  never  be  universal  in  our  poetry. 
Many  of  our  most  beautiful  poetic  words  have  no  rhymes; 
nor  does  the  ever  accumulating  wealth  of  our  language 
tend  to  supply  this  deficiency.  Modern  additions  to  our 
speech  are  chiefly  inflected  forms,  and  are,  therefore,  un- 
suited  for  poetry.  Erom  all  these  causes  there  will  always 
be  in  English  room  for  forms  of  blank  verse,  and  for  the 
e.xercise  of  ingenuity  in  new  meters." 


PROSODY  AND  VERSIFICATION. 


349 


Single  rhymes  are  words  of  one  syllable  rhyming  to- 
gether; as,  breast  and  rest.  These  are  sometimes  called 
"masculine  rhymes." 

Double  rhymes  are  words,  the  last  two  syllables  of 
which  rhyme  together;  as,  glory  and  story,  tinkling  and 
sprinkling,  condition  and  rt^etitioji.  Double  rhymes  are 
called  by  some  authors  "feminine  rhymes." 

Triple  rhymes  have  three  corresponding  syllables;  as, 
glorious  and  victorious,  readily  and  steadily,  tenderly  and 
slenderly. 

Sectional,  or  line,  rhyme  is  an  agreement  of  sound  oc- 
curring in  the  same  line.     Thus: 

Her  look  was  like  the  morning  star. — Bufus. 

The  s-^Xendor  falls  on  castle  walls 

And  snowy  summits  old  in  story : 
The  long  light  shakes  across  the  lakes, 

And  the  wild  cataract  leaps  in  glory. —  Tennyson, 

Then  gently  scan  your  brother  )]ian, 

Still  gentlier  sister  woman ; 
Tho'  they  may  gang  a  kennin  wrang, 

To  step  aside  is  human. — Burns. 

Will  stood  for  skill,  and  law  obeyed  lust ; 

Might  trod  down  right :  of  king  there  was  no  fear. — Ferrers. 

We  were  t\\&Jirsl  that  ever  burst 
Into  that  silent  sea! — Coleridge. 

Then  up  with  your  ctcp,  till  you  stagger  in  speech. 

And  match  me  this  catch,  though  you  swagger  and  screech. — Scott. 

Blank  Verse  is  without  rhyme.  Its  versification  is  noble 
and  bold,  particularly  suited  to  subjects  of  dignity  and  force, 
which  demand  a  freedom  from  the  constraint  and  strict 
regularity  of  rhyme. 


350  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC. 


Stanza. 


A  Stanza  is  a  division  of  a  poem  containing  two  or  more 
verses,  A  stanza  is  commonly  called  a  verse.  Each  line  is 
a  verse,  but  a  stanza  contains  at  least  two  lines.  There  are 
a  great  many  kinds  of  stanza  in  English  poetry.  Some  of 
the  most  common  are  explained  below. 

A  Distich,  or  Couplet,  consists  of  two  verses  rhyming 
together;  as, 

A  man  he  was  to  all  the  country  dear, 

And  passing  rich  with  forty  pounds  a  year. — Goldsmith. 

A  Triplet  consists  of  three  verses  rhyming  together;  as, 
Then  to  the  still  small  voice  I  said, 
Let  me  not  cast  to  endless  shade 
What  is  so  wonderfully  made. —  Tennyson. 

A  Quatrain  is  a  stanza  of  four  lines;  in  general  the 
lines  rhyme  alternately;  as, 

Soon  rested  those  who  fought ;  but  thou 

Who  minglest  in  the  harder  strife 
For  truths  which  men  receive  not  now, 
Thy  warfare  only  ends  with  life. — Bryant. 

The  Rhyme-Royal  is  a  seven-line  stanza,  invented  by 
Chaucer.  It  is  composed  of  iambic  pentameter  lines,  the 
first  four  being  an  ordinary  quatrain,  the  lines  rhyming 
alternately;  the  fifth  line  repeats  the  rhyme  of  the  fourth, 
and  the  last  two  form  a  rhyming  couplet.  The  following 
is  an  example : 

Why  then  cloth  flesh,  a  bubble-glass  of  breath,  i 
Hunt  after  honor  and  advancement  vain, 

And  rear  a  trophy  for  devouring  death,  y 

With  so  great  labor  and  long  lasting  pain,       4< 
As  if  his  days  forever  should  remain.''  5. 

Since  all  that  in  this  world  is  great  or  gay,  6n 

Doth  as  a  vapor  vanish  and  decay. — Spenser,  "j  y 


PROSODY  AND  VERSIFICATION.  35  I 

The  Spenserian  Stanza  derives  its  name  from  its  in- 
ventor, Edmund  Spenser,  who  used  it  in  his  Faerie 
Queene.  It  consists  of  nine  hnes,  the  first  eight  being 
iambic  pentameters,  the  last  one  an  iambic  hexameter.  In 
respect  to  the  rhyme,  the  stanza  is  constructed  of  two  ordi- 
nary quatrains,  with  hnes  rhyming  alternately.  These 
quatrains  are  then  tied  together  by  the  last  line  of  the  first 
quatrain  rhyming  with  the  first  line  of  the  second.  The 
ninth  line  rhymes  with  the  eighth. 

This  stanza  has  been  found  to  be  peculiarly  suited  to  long 
poems,  and  was  used  by  Spenser,  Thomson,  and  Byron. 
A  large  part  of  Byron's  poetry  is  written  in  it;  among  re- 
cent poets  he  is  the  most  successful  cultivator  of  it.  The 
following  is  a  selection  from  Childe  Harold: 

It  is  the  hush  of  night ;  and  all  between 
Thy  margin  and  the  mountains,  dusk,  yet  clear, 
Mellowed  and  mingling,  yet  distinctly  seen —  3' 

Save  darkened  Jura,  whose  capped  heights  appear  4^ 
Precipitously  steep  ;  and,  drawing  near,  5'^ 

There  breathes  a  living  fragrance  from  the  shore,        6v 
Of  flowers  yet  fresh  with  childhood;  on  the  ear  7' 

Drops  the  light  drip  of  the  suspended  oar,  8  - 

Or  chirps  the  grasshopper  one  good-night  carol  more.  9/ 

The  Sonnet  Stanza  originated  with  the  Italians,  or 
was  borrowed  by  them  from  the  early  Provenc^al  poets. 
The  Italians  were  assiduous  cultivators  of  this  stanza,  and 
brought  it  to  such  perfection  that  excellent  models  are  to 
be  found  in  the  writings  of  nearly  all  the  Italian  poets ;  the 
sonnets  of  Petrarch  and  Dante,  however,  are  the  finest  ex- 
amples. The  sonnet  is  very  elaborate  in  its  structure.  It 
consists  of  fourteen  lines  of  iambic  pentameter,  composing 
two  divisions,  called  the  Major  and  the  Minor.    The  Major 


352 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


division  contains  eight  lines,  and  is  called  the  Octave ;  the 
Minor  division,  six  lines,  and  is  called  the  Sestette. 

The  Octave  consists  of  two  quatrains,  in  each  ot  which 
the  first  line  rhymes  with  the  fourth  line,  and  the  second 
with  the  third.  The  octave  has  but  two  rhymes,  the  first 
and  the  fourth  lines  in  one  quatrain  rhyming  with  the  first 
and  the  fourth  in  the  other ;  so  also  the  second  and  the 
third  of  the  first  quatrain  rhyme  with  the  same  lines  in  the 
second.  The  octave  is  joined  to  the  sestette  by  a  close 
grammatical  structure. 

The  Sestette  is  not  fixed  in  its  form,  but  the  following 
sonnet  by  Milton  illustrates  the  order  generally  found,  and 
that  which  conforms  more  strictly  to  the  Petrarcan  model. 
In  this  order  the  first  line  rhymes  with  the  fourth,  the  sec- 
ond with  the  fifth,  and  the  third  with  the  sixth. 


When  I  consider  how  my  light  is  spent 
Ere  half  my  days,  in  this  dark  world  and  wide, 
And  that  one  talent  which  is  death  to  hide,  3 

Lodged  with  me  useless, though  my  soul  more  bent4< 
To  serve  therewith  my  Maker,  and  present  5. 

My  true  account,  lest  he,  returning,  chide;  6- 

"  Both  God  exact  day-labor,  light  denied  ?"  7 

I  fondly  ask;  but  Patience,  to  prevent  8- 

That  murmur,  soon  replies:   "God  doth  not  need  i 
Either  man's  work,  or  his  own  gifts;  who  best 
Bear  his  mild  yoke,  they  serve  him  best ;  his  state 
Is  kingly;  thousands  at  his  bidding  speed. 
And  post  o'er  land  and  ocean  without  rest ;  5. 

They  also  serve  who  only  stand  and  wait !  "  6- 


Poets  have  commonly  followed  the  Petrarcan  model  as 
to  the  Octave,  but  many  have  deviated  from  it  in  the 
rhymes  of  the  Sestette.  The  most  ordinary  case  is  that 
in  which  the  six  lines  have  but  two  rhymes,  and  are  ar- 
ranged in  three  rhyming  couplets. 


PROSODY  AND  VERSIFICATION. 


353 


The  following,  from  Wordsworth,  shows  yet  a  different  or- 
der of  rhyme  in  the  sestette : 

'  Milton  !  thou  should'st  be  living  at  this  hour: 
England  hath  need  of  thee :  she  is  a  fen 
Of  stagnant  waters  :  altar,  sword,  and  pen. 
Fireside,  the  heroic  wealth  of  hall  and  bower, 
Have  forfeited  their  ancient  English  dower 
Of  inward  happiness.     We  are  selfish  men  ; 
Oh !  raise  us  up,  return  to  us  again. 
And  give  us  manners,  virtue,  freedom,  power. 
Thy  soul  was  like  a  Star,  and  dwelt  apart ; 
Thou  hadst  a  voice  whose  sound  was  like  the  sea 
Pure  as  the  naked  heavens,  majestic,  free; 
So  didst  thou  travel  on  life's  common  way 
In  cheerful  godliness  ;  and  yet  thy  heart 
The  lowliest  duties  on  herself  didst  lay. 

The  Ottava  Rima,  the  heroic  meter  of  the  Italians,  in 
which  Tasso  and  Ariosto  wrote,  consists  of  eight  lines  of 
iambic  pentameter,  the  first  six  rhyming  alternately,  the 
last  two,  in  succession ;  as, 

When  I  prepared  my  bark  first  to  obey, 

As  it  should  still  obey,  the  helm,  my  mind, 

And  carry  prose  or  rhyme,  and  this  my  lay 

Of  Charles  the  Emperor,  whom  you  will  find 

By  several  pens  already  praised  ;  but  they 

Who  to  diffuse  his  glory  were  inclined, 

For  all  that  I  can  see  in  prose  or  verse,  7~\ 

Have  understood  Charles  badly  and  wrote  worse.  S^ 

Morgante  Maggiore  (Byron's  translation). 

In  our  language  Byron's  Do)i  Juan  is  the  chief  example 
of  this  stanza. 

The  Terza  Rima  consists  of  iambic  pentameters,  with 

three  rhymes  at  intervals  ;  as. 

Scarce  had  I  learned  the  names  of  all  that  press 
Of  knights  and  dames,  than  I  beheld  a  sight 

Rhet.— 30. 


% 


354  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Nigh  reft  my  wits  for  very  tenderness. 

"  O  guide,"  I  said,  "  fain  would  I  if  I  might 
Have  speech  with  yonder  pair  that  hand  in  hand 

Seem  borne  before  the  dreadful  wind  so  light." 

Dante  (Leigh  Hunt's  translation). 

The  Elegiac  Stanza  consists  of  four  iambic  pentame- 
ters rhyming  alternately ;  as, 

YwW  many  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene, 
The  dark,  unfathomed  caves  of  ocean  bear; 

Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 
And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air. 

Gray. 

This  example  is  from  Gray's  Elegy.  Milton's  Lycidas  and 
Dryden's  Elegy  on  Croimvell  are  also  in  iambic  pentameter. 
Tennyson's  In  Memoriam  is  in  iambic  tetrameter.  Shelley's 
Adonais  is  in  the  Spenserian  stanza. 

The  Acrostic  is  a  poem  in  which  the  first  letters  of  the 
successive  lines  spell  a  word  or  phrase  that  is  the  subject  of 
the  whole,  generally  a  person's  name  or  a  motto. 

The  actress  Rachel  received  a  compliment  as  delicate  as 
the  acrostic  has  ever  paid.  She  was  given  a  diadem  set 
with  precious  stones  so  arranged  that  the  initials  of  the 
names  of  the  successive  stones  were  in  their  order  the  in- 
itials of  six  of  her  principal  parts,  and  in  their  order  formed 
her  name.     Thus: 


R  uby, 
A  methyst, 
C  ornelian, 
H  ematite, 
E  merald, 
L  apis  LazAili, 


R  oxana. 
A  meniadc. 
C  amille. 
H  ermione. 
E  milie. 
L  aodice. 


The  variety  of  stanzas  in  successful  use  is  almost  endless. 


PROSODY  AND  VERSIFICATION.  355 

In  a  work  like  this  it  would  be  impossible  to  describe  them  ; 
however,  a  brief  notice  is  given  of  those  commonly  used  in 
hymns  for  public  worship. 

The  most  common  of  the  psalm  and  hymn  stanzas  are 
the  Long,  the  Short,  and  the  Common  Meter.  These 
three  agree  in  this :  they  are  all  in  iambic  meter,  and  they 
are  all  quatrains.  The  Lcvig  Meter  (marked  L.  M.)  consists 
of  tetrameters;  the  Cojumoii  Meter  (C.  M.)  consists  of  te- 
trameters and  trimeters  combined  alternately ;  the  Short 
Meter  (S.  M. )  consists  of  three  trimeters  and  one  tetrameter. 

The  following  formulas  show  the  construction  of  these 
stanzas :    . 

L.  M.  C.  M.  S.  M. 


Long  Particular  Meter  is  a  stanza  in  which  some  of 
our  hymns  are  written.  It  consists  of  six  lines  of  iambic 
tetrameter,  the  third  and  sixth  rhyming  together,  and  the 
others  rhyming  in  couplets ;  as. 

Fountain  of  good !  all  blessing  flows 
From  thee :  no  want  thy  fullness  knows : 

What  but  thyself  canst  thou  desire  ? 
Yet,  self-sufficient  as  thou  art, 
Thou  dost  desire  my  worthless  heart : 

This,  only  this,  dost  thou  require. —  IVeshy. 

Halleluiah  Meter  is  a  stanza  consisting  of  eight  lines 
of  iambic  meter.  The  first  four  are  trimeters,  rhyming 
alternately.  The  last  four  are  dimeters,  the  first  of  which 
rhymes  with  the  fourth ;  the  second,  with  the  third ;  as, 


356  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Lo !  the  angelic  bands 

In  full  assembly  meet, 
To  wait  his  high  commands, 
And  worship  at  his  feet ! 
Joyfully  they  come, 
And  wing  their  way 
From  realms  of  day 
To  such  a  tomb. — Doddridge. 

Other  Meters. — No  names  have  been  given  to  the  va- 
rious stanzas  used  for  those  hymns  which  are  in  trochaic, 
anapestic,  or  dactylic  meter.  In  the  hymn-books  these 
stanzas  are  called  6's,  7's,  8's,  ii's,  etc.,  according  to  the 
number  of  syllables  in  a  line.  Such  designation,  however, 
gives  no  clue  to  the  rhythmic  movement.  A  more  ac- 
curate way  would  be  to  add  the  name  of  the  verse  immedi- 
ately after  the  figures  representing  the  number  of  syllables. 
Thus : 

Savior,  source  of  every  blessing, 

Tune  my  heart  to  grateful  lays. — 8's,  7's,  Trochaic. 

Sing  we  to  our  God  above. — 7's,  Troc/iaic. 

Steadfast,  then,  in  our  endeavor. 

Heavenly  Father,  may  we  be  ; 
And  forever,  and  forever. 

We  will  give  the  praise  to  thee. 
Alleluia 

Singing,  all  eternity. — 8's,  7's,  4's,  Trochaic. 

Mid  scenes  of  confusion  and  creature  complaints. — i  I's,  Anapestic. 

Say,  shall  we  yield  Him,  in  costly  devotion. 

Odors  of  Edom,  and  offerings  divine? — n's  and  lo's.  Dactylic. 

The  voice  of  free  grace  cries  escape  to  the  mountains. —  1 2's,  Anapestic. 

Direction.  —  Bring  into  the  class  examples  of  the  various  stanzas  described 
above. 


PROSODY  AND  VERSIFICATION.  357 


EXERCISE   LXXVII. 

Direction.—  Arrange  each  of  the  following  sentences  into  an  heroic  coup- 
let— two  iambic  pentameters: 

1.  This  man  would  soar  to  heaven  by  his  own  strength,  and  would 
not  be  obhged  for  more  to  God. 

2.  How  art  thou  misled,  vain,  wretched  creature,  to  think  thy  wit 
bred  these  godlike  notions. 

3.  She  made  a  little  stand  at  every  turn,  and  thrust  her  lily  hand 
among  the  thorns  to  draw  the  rose,  and  she  shook  the  stalk,  every 
rose  she  drew,  and  brushed  the  dew  away.    (Four  lines.) 

4.  Whoever  thinks  to  see  a  faultless  piece,  thinks  what  never  shall 
be,  nor  ever  was,  nor  is. 

5.  Sometimes  men  of  wit,  as  men  of  breeding,  must  commit  less 
errors,  to  avoid  the  great. 

6.  The  hungry  judges  soon  sign  the  sentence,  and  that  jurymen 
may  dine,  wretches  hang. 

Direction.  —  Arrange  each  of  the  following  into  iambic  tetrameters,  rhym- 
ing: 

1.  He  soon  stood  on  the  steep  hill's  verge,  that  looks  o'er  Brank- 
some's  towers  and  wood ;  and  martial  murmurs  proclaimed  from  be- 
low the  southern  foe  approaching.     (Four  lines.) 

2.  Of  mild  mood  was  the  Earl,  and  gentle;  the  vassals  were  rude, 
and  warlike,  and  fierce;  haughty  of  word,  and  of  heart  high,  they 
recked  little  of  a  tame  liege  lord.     (Four  lines.) 

3.  A  lion,  worn  with  cares,  tired  with  the  state  affairs,  and  quite 
sick  of  pomp,  resolved  to  pass  his  latter  life  in  peace,  remote  from  strife 
and  noise.     (Four  lines.) 

4.  I  felt  as,  when  all  the  waves  that  o'er  thee  dash,  on  a  plank  at 
sea,  whelm  and  upheave  at  the  same  time,  and  towards  a  desert  realm 
hurl  thee.     (Four  lines.) 

5.  No  more  sweet  Teviot,  blaze  the  glaring  bale-fires  on  thy  silver 
tide ;  steel-clad  warriors  ride  along  thy  wild  and  willowed  shore  no 
longer.     (Four  lines,  rhyming  alternately.) 

6.  His  eyes  of  swarthy  glow  he  rolls  fierce  on  the  hunter's  quivered 
hand, —  spurns  the  sand  with  black  hoof  and  horn,  and  tosses  his 
mane  of  snow  high.     (Four  lines,  rhyming  alternately.) 


358  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

7.  Where  late  the  green  ruins  were  blended  with  the  rock's  wood- 
covered  side,  tuiTets  rise  in  fantastic  pride,  and  between  ilaunt  feudal 
banners.     (Four  lines,  rhyming  alternately.) 

8.  Whate'er  befall,  I  hold  it  true ;  when  I  sorrow  most,  I  feel  it ; — 
better  than  never  to  have  loved  at  all,  'tis  to  have  loved  and  lost. 
(Four  lines;  the  1st  rhyming  with  the  4th;  the  2d  with  the  3d.) 

Direction. — Arrange  each  of  the  following  into  four  lines  of  anapestic  tetram- 
eter : 

1 .  Content  and  joy  are  now  fled  from  our  dwellings,  and,  instead,  dis- 
ease and  want  are  our  inmates;  now  chivalry  is  dead,  and  Gallia 
ruined,  and  the  glory  of  Europe  is  fled  forever.  (Let  the  hnes  rhyme 
in  couplets). 

2.  How  sweet  is  the  thought  of  to-morrow  to  the  heart,  when  Hope's 
fairy  pictures  display  bright  colors,  how  sweet  when  we  can  borrow 
from  futurity  a  balm  for  the  griefs  that  to-day  afflict  us.  (Lines  rhym- 
ing alternately.) 

3.  There's  a  game  —  I  think  it's  called  euchre  —  much  in  fashion, 
(though  for  pleasure  or  lucre  I  have  never  played  it,)  in  which  the 
players  appear,  when  the  cards  are  in  certain  conditions,  to  have 
changed  their  positions,  and,  in  a  confident  tone,  one  of  them  cries, — 
"  I  may  venture  to  go  it  alone,  I  think  !  "  (Si.\  lines,  rhyming  in  coup- 
lets.) 

Direction.  — Arrange  each  of  the  following  examples  into  trochaic  verse: 

1.  But  from  stream,  dell,  or  mountain,  springs  not  a  fluttering 
zephyr,  lest  the  noontide  beam,  fearful,  his  silken,  his  soft  wings  scorch. 
(Four  lines,  tetrameter.) 

2.  See  the  rooks  returning  home  to  their  high-built  airy  bcdr,,  for 
shelter,  where  the  rising  forest,  the  lordly  dome,  spreads.  (Four  lines, 
tetrameter.) 

3.  God  hath  written  in  those  stars  above,  wondrous  truths,  and 
manifold  as  wondrous ;  but  the  revelation  of  his  love  stands  not  less 
in  the  bright  flowerets  under  us.     (Four  lines,  pentameter.) 

Direction. —  Arrange  each  of  the  following  examples  into  dactylic  verse  : 

I.  We  vainly  offer  such  ample  oblation;  would  vainly  secure  his 
favor  with  gifts  ;  the  heart's  adoration  is  richer  by  far  ;  the  prayers  of 
the  poor  are  dearer  to  God.  (Four  lines,  tetrameter,  rhyming  alter- 
nately.) 


PROSODY  AND  VERSIFICATION.  359 

2.  Over  the  dim  cloudlet,  soar,  musical  cherub,  singing,  away  !  o'er 
fountain  sheen  and  fell,  o'er  green  mountain  and  moor,  o'er  the  red 
streamer  that  heralds  the  day,  over  the  rainbow's  rim.  (Six  lines; 
four  dimeters  and  two  trimeters,  the  third  line  rhyming  with  the  sixth, 
the  others,  in  couplets.) 

3.  Let  the  trumpets,  lads,  be  suing  for  us:  to  pleasure  calling  ;  call- 
ing to  ruin  !  Our  life  is  stormy;  such  is  its  boon.  (Six  lines,  dimeter 
— catalectic.) 

4.  To  the  chief  who  advances  in  triumph,  hail!  Be  the  ever-green 
pine  blest  and  honored!  may  the  tree,  in  his  banner  that  glances,  the 
shelter  and  grace  of  our  line,  long  flourish  !  (Four  lines,  tetrameter — 
catalectic — rhyming  alternately.) 


EXERCISE  LXXVIII. 

The  following  extracts  are  intended  to  illustrate  some  of 
the  varieties  of  meter  and  stanza.  Bring  in  the  passages 
copied  on  paper,  with  the  versification  marked.  In  mark- 
ing the  versification,  mark  first  each  accented  syllable  and 
then  mark  the  others  as  unaccented.  When  a  number  of 
lines  in  any  piece  have  been  thus  marked,  determine 
whether  the  movement  is  Iambic,  Trochaic,  Anapestic,  or 
Dactylic,  and  divide  it  off  accordingly  into  feet.  The  proper 
designation  should  then  be  given  to  the  verse,  as  being 
Iambic,  Trochaic,  etc.,  and  as  being  monometer,  dimeter, 
trimeter,  tetrameter,  etc.  Thus  in  the  following  lines,  the 
first  is  Iambic  trimeter;  the  second  is  Trochaic  tetrameter; 
the  third  is  Anapestic  tetrameter;  the  fourth  is  Dactylic 
trimeter — catalectic : 

1.  [  Stand  up  |  and  bless  |  the  Lord.  [ 

2.  I  Who  are  |  in  those  |  graves  we  |  know  not.  | 

3.  I  At  the  dead  |  of  the  night  |  a  sweet  vi?|ion  I  saw,  | 

4.  I  Ferry  me  |  over  the  |  ferry.  | 


360  COMPOSITIOxN  AND  RHETORIC. 

In  the  case  of  rhyming  passages,  the  rhyme  should  be 
described  as  being  in  couplets,  quatrains,  sonnet-meter,  etc., 
and  the  formula  for  the  rhyme  and  stanza  should  be  given. 

1.  Italy,  loved  of  the  sun, 

Wooed  of  the  sweet  winds  and  wed  by  the  sea, 
When,  since  the  nations  begun. 

Was  other  inheritance  like  unto  thee  ? — Bayard  Taylor. 

2.  I  know  not  where  his  islands  lift 

Their  fronded  palms  in  air ; 
I  only  know  I  can  not  drift 

Beyond  his  love  and  care. —  l\7nt/icr. 

3.  When  breezes  are  soft  and  skies  are  fair, 
I  steal  an  hour  from  study  and  care, 
And  hie  me  away  to  the  woodland  scene, 
Where  wanders  the  stream  with  waters  of  green. 
As  if  the  bright  fringe  of  herbs  on  its  brink 
Had  given  their  stain  to  the  wave  they  drink; 
And  they  whose  meadows  it  murmurs  through, 

Have  named  the  stream  from  its  own  fair  hue. —  PV. C.Bryant 

4.  I  thought  the  sparrow's  note  from  heaven. 

Singing  at  dawn  on  the  alder  bough ; 
I  brought  him  home,  in  his  nest,  at  even ; 

He  sings  the  song,  but  it  cheers  not  now, 
For  I  did  not  bring  home  the  river  and  sky  ; — 
He  sang  to  my  ear, — they  sang  to  my  eye. — Emerson. 

5.  If  our  faith  in  Thee  was  shaken. 
Pardon  Thou  our  hearts  mistaken, 
Our  obedience  re-awaken. 

6.  Willows  whiten,  aspens  quiver. 
Little  breezes  dusk  and  shiver 
Thro'  the  wave  that  runs  forever 
By  the  island  in  the  river 

Flowing  down  to  Camclot. 
Four  gray  walls,  and  four  gray  towers, 


PROSODY  AND  VERSIFICATION.  361 

Overlook  a  space  of  flowers, 
And  the  silent  isle  embowers 

The  Lady  of  Shalott. —  Tennyson. 

7.  Day  after  day,  day  after  aay, 

We  stuck,  nor  breath  nor  motion  ; 

As  idle  as  a  painted  ship 

Upon  a  painted  ocean. —  Coleridge. 

8.  Rarely,  rarely,  comest  thou, 

Spirit  of  Delight: 
Wherefore  hast  thou  left  me  now 

Many  a  day  and  night? 
Many  a  weary  night  and  day 
'Tis  since  thou  art  fled  away. — Shelley. 

g.  Launch  thy  bark,  mariner! 

Christian   God  speed  thee ! 
Let  loose  the  rudder-bands — 

Good  angels  lead  thee ! 
Set  thy  sails  warily  ; 

Tempests  will  come; 
Steer  thy  course  steadily ; 

Christian,  :>teerhome! — Mrs.  Sonthey. 

10.  I'll  not  leave  thee,  thou  lone  one, 

To  pine  on  the  stem ; 
Since  the  lovely  are  sleeping, 

Go  sleep  thou  with  them. 
Thus  kindly  I  scatter 

Thy  leaves  o'er  the  bed, 
Where  thy  mates  of  the  garden 

Lie  scentless  and  dead. — Moore. 

1 1 .  When  reposing  that  night  on  my  pallet  of  straw. 

By  the  wolf-scaring  fagot  that  guarded  the  slain, 
At  the  dead  of  the  night  a  sweet  vision  I  saw, 

And  thrice  ere  the  morning  I  dreamt  it  again. —  Campbell. 

12.  Touch  us  gently.  Time! 

We  've  not  proud  nor  soaring  wings : 
Our  ambition,  our  content 
Lies  in  simple  things. 

Rhet.— 31. 


362  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Humble  \oyagers  are  we, 

O'er  Life's  dim,  unsounded  sea, 

Seeking  only  some  calm  clime : — 

Touch  us  gently^  gentle  Time  I — B.  IV.  Procter. 

13.  And  I  have  loved  thee,  Ocean!  and  my  joy 
Of  youthful  sports  was  on  thy  breast  to  be 
Borne,  like  thy  bubbles,  onward:  from  a  boy 
1  wantoned  with  thy  breakers — they  to  me 
Were  a  delight ;  and  if  the  fresliening  sea 
Made  them  a  terror — 't  was  a  pleasing  fear, 
For  I  was  as  it  were  a  child  of  thee, 

And  trusted  to  thy  billows  far  and  near. 
And  laid  my  hand  upon  thy  mane — as  I  do  here. — Byron. 

14.  Dwell  within  us,  blessed  Spirit; 

Where  thou  art,  no  ill  can  coiiie; 
Bless  us  now,  through  Jesus'  merit; 
Reign  in  every  heart  and  home. 

15.  O  then  shall  the  veil  be  removed. 

And  round  me  Thy  brightness  be  poured ; 
I  shall  see  Him  whom,  absent,  I  loved. 
Whom,  not  having  seen,  I  adored. 

16.  The  Lord  my  Shepherd  is; 

I  shall  be  well  supplied ; 
Since  he  is  mine,  and  I  am  his, 
What  can  I  want  beside  ? —  Watts. 

17.  The  Lord  himself,  the  mighty  Lord, 
Vouchsafes  to  be  my  guide  ; 

The  shepherd,  by  whose  constant  care 
My  wants  are  all  supplied. 

18.  My  God,  permit  me  not  to  be 
A  stranger  to  myself  and  thee; 
Amidst  a  thousand  thoughts  I  rove. 
Forgetful  of  my  highest  love. 

19.  Hail  to  the  brightness  of  Zion's  glad  morning; 

Joy  to  the  lands  that  in  darkness  have  lain  ; 
Hushed  be  the  accents  of  sorrow  and  mourning; 

Zion  in  triumph  begins  her  mild  reign. —  T.  Hastings. 


PROSODY  AND  VERSIFICATION.  363 

20.  Who  knows  the  errors  of  his  thoughts  ? 
My  God,  forgive  my  secret  faults, 

And  from  presumptuous  sins  restrain; 
Accept  my  poor  attempts  of  praise. 
That  I  have  read  thy  book  of  grace, 

And  book  of  nature,  not  in  vain. 

21.  Swell  the  anthem,  raise  the  song; 
Praises' to  our  God  belong; 
Saints  and  angels,  join  to  sing 
Praises  to  the  heavenly  King. 

22.  In  Death's  kindly  bosom  our  last  hope  remains: 
The  dead  fear  no  tyrants ;  the  grave  has  no  chains. 
On,  on  to  the  combat!  the  heroes  that  bleed 

For  virtue  and  rhankind,  are  herpes  indeed  !       ^^ 
And,  oh  !  e'en  if  Freedom  from  this  world  be  driven. 
Despair  not — at  least  we  shall  find  her  in  heaven  ! — Moore. 

23.  'Tis  the  wink  of  an  eye,  'tis  the  draught  of  a  breath. 
From  the  blossom  of  health  to  the  paleness  of  death, — 
From  the  gilded  saloon  to  the  bier  and  the  shroud, — 
O  why  should  the  spirit  of  mortal  be  proud  ? — Knox. 

24.  Creep  into  thy  narrow  bed, 
Creep,  and  let  no  more  be  said ! 
Vain  thy  onset,  all  stands  fast. 

Thou  thyself  must  break  at  last. — Arnold. 

25.  Christmas  is  here; 

Winds  whistle  shrill. 
Icy' and  chill. 

Little  care  we ; 
Little  we  fear 
Weather  without, 
Sheltered  about 

The  mahogany-tree. —  Thackeray. 

26.  Break,  break,  break. 

At  the  foot  of  thy  crags,  O  Sea  ! 
But  the  tender  grace  of  a  day  that  is  dead 
Will  never  come  back  to  me. —  Tennyson. 


364  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

27.  Farewell,  O  day  misspent ; 
Thy  fleeting  hours  were  lent 

In  vain  to  my  endeavor. 
In  shade  and  sun 
Thy  race  is  run 
Forever !  oh,  forever ! 
The  leaf  drops  from  the  tree. 
The  sand  falls  in  the  glass, 
And  to  the  dread  Eternity 

The  dying  minutes  pass. — Mackay. 

28.  Sweet  and  low,  sweet  and  low, 

Wind  of  the  western  sea. 
Low,  low,;  breathe  and  blow,  i 

Wind  of  the  western  sea  !  ^ 

Over  the  rolling  waters  go. 
Come  from  the  dying  moon,  and  blow. 

Blow  him  again  to  mc ; 
While  my  little  one,  while  my  pretty  one,  sleeps. —  Tennyson. 

29.  Under  my  window,  under  my  window. 

All  in  the  midsummer  weather. 
Three  little  girls  with  fluttering  curls 

Flit  to  and  fro  together  : — 
There's  Bell  with  her  bonnet  of  satin  sheen. 
And  Maud  with  her  mantle  of  silver-green. 

And  Kate  with  her  scarlet  feather. —  Westwood. 

30.  Work — work — work  ! 
From  weary  chime  to  chime, 

Work — work — work — 
As  prisoners  work  for  crime  ! 

Band,  and  gusset,  and  seam. 

Seam,  and  gusset,  and  band, 
Till  the  heart  is  sick,  and  the  brain  benumbed, 

As  well  as  the  weary  hand. — Hood. 

31.  I  sometimes  hold  it  half  a  sin 

To  put  in  words  the  grief  I  feel ; 
For  words,  like  Nature,  half  reveal, 
And  half  conceal  the  Soul  within. —  Tennyson. 


PROSODY  AND  VERSIFICATION. 

32.  Take  her  up  tenderly, 

Lift  her  with  care  ; 
Fashioned  so  slenderly, 

Young,  and  so  fair ! 
Ere  her  limbs  frigidly 
Stiffen  too  rigidly. 

Decently,  kindly, 
Smooth  and  compose  them ; 
And  her  eyes,  close  them, 

Staring  so  blindly  ! — Hood. 

33.  By  the  craggy  hillside, 
Through  the  mosses  bare. 
They  have  planted  thorn-trees 
For  pleasure  here  and  there. 
Is  any  man  so  daring 

To  dig  up  one  in  spite. 

He  shall  find  the  thornies  set 

In  his  bed  at  night. — Allingham. 

34.  Alas !  the  joys  that  fortune  brings 

Are  trifling,  and  decay; 
And  those  who  prize  the  paltry  things, 
More  trifling  still  than  they. — Goldsniifh. 

35.  Let  not  Ambition  mock  their  useful  toil, 

Their  homely  joys,  and  destiny  obscure  ; 
Nor  Grandeur  hear  with  a  disdainful  smile 

The  short  and  simple  annals  of  the  \>oor.— Gray. 

36.  Art  thou  poor,  yet  hast  thou  golden  slumbers  ? 

Oh,  sweet  content ! 
Art  thou  rich,  yet  is  thy  mind  perplexed  ? 

Oh,  punishment ! 
Dost  thou  laugh  to  see  how  fools  are  vexed 
To  add  to  golden  numbers,  golden  numbers? 

Oh,  sweet  content! — Dekker. 

37.  Opinion  governs  all  mankind. 

Like  the  blind's  leading  of  the  blind. — Butler. 


365 


366  ORic. 

38.  But  the  raven,  sitting  lonely  on  that  placid  bust,  spoke  only 
That  one  word,  as  if  his  soul  in  that  one  word  he  did  outpour. 
Nothing  further  then  he  uttered ;  not  a  feather  then  he  fluttered — 
Till  I  scarcely  more  than  muttered,  "Other  friends  have  flown 
before — 

'     vill  leave  me,  as  my  hopes  have  flown  before." 
len  the  bird  said,  "Nevermore." — Poe. 

falls  on  castle  walls, 

summits  old  in  story : 
t  shakes  across  the  lakes, 
Id  cataract  leaps  in  gloiy. 
,jset  the  wild  echoes  flying, 
v-er,  echoes,  dying,  dying,  dying. —  Teftnyson. 

:he  measure  of  the  year ; 
easons  in  the  mind  of  man. 
pring,  when  fancy  clear 
uty  with  an  easy  span : 
er,  when  luxuriously 
cud  of  youthful  thought  he  loves 
by  such  dreaming  high 
heaven  :  quiet  coves 
,  Autumn,  when  his  wings 
;  contented  so  to  look 
ss — to  let  fair  things 
;d  as  a  threshold  brook. 
■  too,  of  pale  misfeature, 
brego  his  mortal  nature. — Keats. 

ers  for  the  thirsting  flowers, 
id  the  streams; 
for  the  leaves  when  laid 
ly  dreams. 
.  'e  shaken  the  dews  that  waken 
;  every  one. 
When  rocked  to  rest  on  their  mother's  breast, 
As  she  dances  about  the  sun. — Shelley. 


PROSODY  AND  VERSIFICATION.  367 

Poetic  Pauses. — In  addition  to  the  pauses  required  by 
the  sense,  two  suspensions  of  the  voice — the  final  and  the 
ccTSural  pause — belong  to  verse. 

The  final  pause  is  a  sHght  suspension  of  the  voice  at  the 
end  of  each  Hne,  even  when  the  grammatical  sense  does 
not  require  it. 

The  caesural  pause  is  a  slight  suspension  of  the  voice 
within  the  line,  and  generally,  though  not  always,  about 
the  middle  of  it.  Long  lines  may  have  two  or  more  cae- 
sural pauses.     In  these  lines  the  csesura  is  marked  (||) : 

Soldier,  rest!  ||  thy  warfare  o'er. 

Eternal  sunshine  ||  of  the  spotless  mind. 

Of  all  the  Grecian  woes,  ||  O  goddess,  sing! 

Lives  through  all  life,  ||  extends  ||  through  all  extent. 

Spreads  II  undivided,  operates  ||  unspent. 

Much  of  the  harmony  of  our  meters,  and  of  iambic 
meters  especially,  depends  on  the  skillful  disposition  of 
caesural  pauses.  They  often  correspond,  though  not  always, 
to  pauses  required  by  the  sense.  Skillful  poets  aim  to 
construct  their  lines  in  such  a  way  that  the  final  and  caesural 
pauses  shall  fall  where  they  are  required  by  the  meaning, 
or  grammatical  construction.  The  ceesural  pause  should 
never  be  placed  so  as  to  injure  the  sense. 

In  iambic  meters,  the  most  appropriate  place  for  caesural 
pauses  is  after  the  fourth,  or  after  the  sixth  syllable.  If 
the  pause  fall  after  the  fourth  syllable,  the  briskest  melody 
is  thereby  produced,  and  the  most  spirited  air  given  to  the 
line.  If  the  pause  fall  after  the  fifth  syllable,  the  verse  be- 
comes more  smooth,  gentle,  and  flowing;  if  it  follow  the 
sixth  syllable,  the  tenor  of  the  music  becomes  solemn  and 
grave ;  if  it  fall  after  the  seventh  syllable,  which  is  the 
nearest  place  to  the  end  of  the  line  that  it  can  occupy,  the 
grave,  solemn  cadence  becomes  still  more  sensible. 


CHAPTER   XV. 


POETRY. 


Poetry  may  be  defined  as  the  product  of  an  excited  and 
a  creative  imagination,  with  a  primary  object  to  please,  and 
expressed  in  the  form  of  verse.  The  most  artistic  depart- 
ment of  hterature,  it  is  near  akin,  in  its  effects,  to  music  and 
painting.  The  poet  is  a  creator — an  artist — sensitive  to 
impressions  which  do  not  affect  ordinary  natures ;  he  gives 
to  his  fancies  a  deHcacy  of  form,  a  warmth  of  coloring,  and 
a  richness  of  expression  alien  to  prose,  the  "common 
drudge  between  man  and  man." 

Poetry  does  not  confine  itself  to  the  language  of  common 
life.  It  selects  words  for  their  beauty  of  sound  and  asso- 
ciation, for  their  picturesqueness,  for  their  elevation — rare 
words  often,  words  that  are  even  obsolete  in  prose. 

It  uses  the  transposed  order  in  a  degree  forbidden  in  con- 
versation, unpardonable  even  in  impassioned  oratory.  "  Im- 
perfect periods  are  frec]uent ;  elisions  are  perpetual ;  and 
many  of  the  minor  words,  which  would  be  deemed  essential 
in  prose,  are  dispensed  with." 

Poetry  admits  of  a  bold  use  of  iiiiai^cn'.  Herbert  Spencer 
says:  "Metaphors,  similes,  hyperboles,  and  personifications 
are  the  poet's  colors,  which  he  has  liberty  to  employ  al- 
most without  limit.  We  characterize  as  '  poetical '  the 
prose  which  uses  these  appliances  of  language  with  any 
frequency;    and    condemn    it  as   'overflorid'  or   'affected' 

(  .)'''3  ) 


POETRY. 


369 


long  before  they  occur  with  the  profu-sion  allowed  in 
verse." 

Poetry  may  be  divided  into  five  principal  species — the 
Lyric,  the  Pastoral,  the  Didactic,  the  Epic,  and  the  Dra- 
matic. 

To  classify  existing  poems  is  very  difficult,  since  some 
poems  will  not  readily  take  their  place  in  any  list,  and 
others  may  be  classed  in  several. 

Lyric  Poetry. 

The  Lyric  Poem  is  an  expression  of  some  intense  feel- 
ing, passion,  or  emotion.  As  its  name  denotes,  it  originally 
meant  poetry  intended  to  be  sung  to  the  accompaniment 
of  the  lyre,  being  either  in  its  tone  of  feeling,  or  more 
commonly  in  its  quick  movement  and  vivacity,  suitable  for 
music.  It  is  usually  short,  and  is  exemplified  in  the  song, 
hymn,  and  ode. 

The  varieties  of  lyric  poetry  may  be  thus  enumerated: 

(i)  The  Sacred  Song  or  hymn. 

(2)  The  Secular  Song.  To  this  class  belong  the  war 
song,  the  political  song,  the  patriotic  song,  the  sentimental 
song,  the  comic  song,  the  bacchanalian  song,  etc. 

(3)  The  Ode,  which  is  the  loftiest  embodiment  of  intense 
feeling,  is  not  intended  to  be  sung.  Odes  are  of  four  prin- 
cipal kinds:  Sacred,   Heroic,  Moral,  and  Amatory. 

Sacred  odes  are  sometimes  called  hymns;  as  Spenser's 
four  hymns,  on  Loi'c,  Beauty,  Heavenly  Love,  and  Heav- 
enly Beauty.  These  average  nearly  three  hundred  lines 
each.  Milton's  Ode  on  the  Nativity  is  another  example. 
Byron's  Hebrezv  Melodies  and  Moore's  Sacred  Melodies  con- 
tain pieces  of  great  lyrical  beauty. 


370  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC. 

Heroic  odes  celebrate  the  praises  of  heroes,  and  are  mostly 
occupied  with  martial  exploits.  Of  this  class  are  Pindar's 
odes,  in  Greek,  2ind  Alexander  s  Feast,  by  Dryden.  Lowell's 
Commemoration  Ode  should,   perhaps,   be  mentioned  also. 

Moral  odes  express  almost  every  sentiment  suggested 
by  friendship,  humanity,  art,  patriotism,  etc.  Collins'  ode 
TJie  Passions,  Gray's  Ode  on  a  Distant  Prospect  of  Eton  Col- 
lege, and  Pope's  ode  St.  Cecilia,  are  examples  of  this  class 
of  composition. 

Amatory  odes  are  more  generally  known  as  Love  Songs: 
these  are  numerous  in  all  literatures.  Anacreon  among  the 
Greeks,  and  Horace  among  the  Romans,  were  the  most 
successful  writers  of  this  kind  of  verse  among  the  ancients. 
Thomas  Moore  and  Robert  Burns  have  contributed  much 
to  this  branch  of  our  literature.  Coleridge's  Genevieve  and 
Byron's  Maid  of  Athens  are  illustrations. 

The  Elegy. — This  variety  may  be  classed  under  the 
head  of  lyric  poetry.  Elegiac  poetry  is  usually  of  a  sad 
and  mournful  kind,  celebrating  the  virtues  of  the  dead. 
Gray's  Elegy  in  a  Country  ClnireJi-Yard,  Shelley's  Adonais 
—  on  the  death  of  Keats,  Milton's  Lycidas — on  the  deatlf.-. 
of  his  friend  Edmund  King,  Tennyson's  /;/  Memoriam  — 
on  the  death  of  his  beloved  friend  Arthur  Henry  Hallam, 
are  illustrations. 


Pastoral  Poetry. 

Pastoral  Poetry  means  strictly  that  which  celebrates 
shepherd  or  rustic  life ;  such  were  the  themes  of  the  early 
pastoral  poets,  Theocritus  among  the  Greeks  and  Virgil 
among  the  Romans.  Ikit  modern  authors  of  this  verse  have 
used  a  w  idcr  range,  and  the  term   Pastoral   is  now  applied 


POETRY.  371 

to  any  poem  that  deals  with  the  objects  of  external  nature. 
No  poetry  is  better  understood  or  appreciated,  and  none  is 
more  popular.  Flower  and  leaf  and  bird  and  insect  and 
beast  of  the  field,  the  scenery  of  mountain  and  valley  and 
rivers  and  lakes  and  clouds,  rural  life  in  all  its  changes, 
nature  in  all  her  moods,  are  subjects  of  pastoral  poetry. 

The  pastoral  poems  of  Virgil,  called  by  him  Eclogues, 
though  graceful  and  musical,  are  inferior  in  excellence  to 
the  Idyls  of  Theocritus.  From  these  exquisite  Idyls  arose 
the  term  idyllic,  which  is  sometimes  applied  to  pastoral 
poetry.  The  poetry  of  Burns  bears  the  true  pastoral  stamp ; 
his  Cotter  s  Saturday  Night  is  a  fine  example.  Tennyson's 
Idyls  of  the  King,  Allan  Ramsay's  Gentle  Shepherd,  Pope's 
Pastorals,  Shenstone's  Ballad  in  four  parts,  on  Absence, 
Hope,  Solitude,  and  Disappointment,  are  further  illustra- 
tions of  this  kind  of  verse. 

Didactic  Poetry. 

The  Didactic  Poem  seeks  to  teach  some  moral,  philo- 
sophical, or  literary  truth.  As  it  directly  aims  to  teach,  it 
is  less  purely  poetical  than  the  other  kinds  of  verse.  Didac- 
tic poems  are  often  dry  and  prosaic,  as  compared  with  other 
kinds  of  poetical  composition ;  but  many  of  them  are  full  of 
interest,  and  fitted  to  lift  us  to  nobler  thought  and  life. 
Considered  as  essays  in  verse,  they  are  among  the  finest 
compositions  in  our  language.  They  are  on  every  subject. 
Some  examples  are :  Wordsworth's  Excursion,  Pope's  Es- 
say on  Criticism  and  Essay  on  Man,  Young's  Night  ThougJits, 
Pollok's  Course  of  Time,  Tupper's  Proverbial  Philosophy, 
Thomson's  Seasons,  Campbell's  Pleasures  of  Hope,  and 
Cowper's  Task.  The  Hind  and  Panther  of  Dryden  is  the 
earliest  didactic  poem  in  the  language. 


0/  - 


COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORfC. 


Satirical  Poetry. — Allied  to  the  didactic  poem  is  the 
satire,  or  satirical  poem.  To  this  species  of  poetry  the 
didactic  has  the  same  relation  which  the  schools  of  a 
country  have  to  its  courts  of  justice.  One  aims  at  forming 
virt»e,  and  imparting  wisdom ;  the  other  at  scourging  vice 
and  exposing  folly.  Satirical  poetry  is  divisible  into  three 
classes — Moral,  Personal,  and  Political.  Moral  satires  are 
those  satires  on  contemporary  morals  and  manners ;  of  these 
Pope's  Moral  Essays  and  the  satires  of  Horace  furnish  ex- 
cellent examples.  Personal  satires  are  mainly  directed 
against  individuals,  as  Dryden's  MacFlcchioc,  which  is  an 
attack  on  a  rival  dramatist,  Byron's  English  Bards  and  Scotch 
Reviewers,  which  ridicules  nearly  all  the  poets  of  the  author's 
day,  and  Pope's  Diinciad,  which  vilifies  all  writers  by  whom 
he  had  been  attacked.  Political  satires  are  written  in  the 
interest  of  a  party  in  the  state  ;  the  most  famous  instance 
is  Dryden's  Absalom  and  AcJdtopliel ;  nearly  equal  in  rank 
is  Butler's  Hudibras.  Under  the  head  of  satire  may,  also, 
be  placed  Lowell's  Fable  for  Critics. 

Satirists,  as  a  class,  seldom  attempt  to  inculcate  posi- 
tively what  is  good,  or  to  recommend  what  is  right  and 
proper;  they  leave  this  task  to  moralists  and.  public  in- 
structors. 

Epic  Poetry. 

The  Epic  Poem  is  a  poetical  recital  of  some  great  and 
heroic  enterprise.  The  events  are  narrated  by  the  hero  or 
some  participant  in  the  scenes.  The  plot  should  be  inter- 
esting and  conii:)licated ;  there  should  be  many  actors, 
many  episodes,  and  the  whole  should  be  recounted  in  ele- 
vated language.  Tiie  epic  is  the  longest  of  all  poetic  com- 
positions. 


POETRY.  373 

The  leading  forms  of  epic  poetry  are : 

(i)  The  Grand  Epic,  which  has  for  its  subject  some 
great  complex  action.  The  number  of  grand  epics  is  very 
limited.  Most  civilized  nations  have  one ;  few  have  more 
than  one.  The  most  celebrated  are  Homer's  Iliad,  Virgil's 
ALneid,  Dante's  Divine  Comedy,  and  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 
English  literature  possesses  but  the  one  great  epic  poem, — 
Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  a  composition  which,  for  grandeur 
of  conception,  artistic  structure,  careful,  vigorous  treatment, 
and  nobleness  of  style,  is  unrivaled  in  our  language.  It 
places  Milton  as  an  epic  poet,  says  Coleridge,  above  Homer 
and  above  Dante. 

(2)  The  Metrical  Romance,  which  is  inferior  in  dignity 
and  grandeur  to  the  epic.  It  is  a  narrative  of  adventure, 
and  has  nearly  every  quality  belonging  to  the  epic,  but 
has  them  in  a  less  marked  degree.  Spenser's  Faerie 
Qneene  is  the  highest  specimen  of  this  kind  of  composi- 
tion ;  other  examples  are  Chaucer's  Cafiterbury  Tales ; 
The  Lady  of  the  Lake  and  Mannion  by  Sir  Walter  Scott ; 
Longfellow's  Evangeline ;  Keats'  Eve  of  St.  Agnes,  and 
Moore's  Lalla  RookJi. 

(3)  The  Historical  Poem,  or  Metrical  History,  which 
is  a  narrative  of  public  events,  extending  over  a  period 
more  or  less  prolonged  of  a  nation's  history.  This  species 
of  poetry  relies  very  much  upon  the  story  for  its  effect. 
Dryden's  Annus  Mirabilis  belongs  to  this  class.  Akin  to 
the  historical  poem,  though  in  nature  more  strictly  lyrical, 
are  war  poems,  such  as  Macaulay's  Lays  of  Aneient  Rome, 
and  Campbell's  Holuidinden  and  Battle  of  tlie  Baltic.  These, 
however,  might  also  be  given  as  examples  of  the  Ballad — 
the  simplest  kind  of  narrative  poetry. 


374  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


Dramatic  Poetry. 


A  Dramatic  Poem  is  designed  to  be  acted  on  the  stage. 
This  species  of  poetry  exists  in  the  form  called  plays. 
Scenery,  costume,  dialogue,  and  action  combine  to  repro- 
duce the  original  ev^ents  and  represent  the  characters,  as  if 
really  present.  In  such  a  poem,  there  is  little  that  is  com- 
monplace ;  everything  is  positive  and  pronounced ;  the 
passion  is  strong,  often  tumultuous;  the  thought  is  vigor- 
ous; the  incidents  exciting.  Like  the  epic  it  contains  a 
story,  but  unlike  it  the  story  is  acted,  not  narrated. 

The  main  divisions  of  the  drama  are  tragedy  and  comedy. 

Tragedy  is  earnest  and  serious,  and  deals  often  with 
great  men  and  lofty  actions.  It  represents  the  calamitous 
events  of  human  life,  with  the  design  of  arousing  pity  and  ' 
fear  in  connection  with  admiration  of  nobility  and  scorn  of 
baseness  in  character.  The  language  is  poetically  pleasing, 
and  the  subjects  are  various.  Shakespeare  has  given  us  a 
great  variety  of  tragic  situations  in  Hamlet,  Othello,  King- 
Lear,  Julius  desar,  Rouieo  and  Juliet,  and  others. 

Comedy  represents  the  ludicrous  side  of  life.  It  seeks 
chiefly  the  topics  of  common  life,  and  deals  largely  in  ridi- 
cule and  satire;  its  many  forms  embrace  the  lowest  per- 
sonal caricature  and  the  most  refined  humor.  When  the 
dialogue  is  low  and  the  characters  are  of  inferior  rank,  it  is 
called  a  Farce.  Gross  exaggerations  for  the  purpose  of 
exciting  mirth,  or  comical  situations  which  are  eminently 
absurd,  produce  the  Travesty,  or  Alock-hcroic.  Scenes 
mingling  the  tragic  and  the  comic,  and  interspersed  with 
songs,  constitute  Melodran/a.  Of  the  genteel  comedy. 
Goldsmith's  (iood-Natitred  Man  and  She  Stoops  to  Conquer, 
and  .Slu'i  idan's  Rivals  and   Ihe  Critie,  are  illustrations. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

CAPITALS  AND   PUNCTUATION. 

Capitals. 

If  written  language  be  efficient  as  a  medium  of  commu- 
nication, it  must  be  clearly  expressed ;  and  to  this  end  we 
should  be  able  to  make  a  just  distinction  of  the  symbols 
by  which  the  thought  is  conveyed.  For  example,  compare 
—  "GIVE  ME,  O  FATHER,  TO  THY  THRONE 
ACCESS,"  with — "  Give  me,  O  Father,  to  thy  throne  ac- 
cess." Now  suppose  an  entire  page  to  be  printed  in  the 
style  of  the  first,  and  another  in  the  style  of  the  second ; 
then  we  may  readily  perceive  the  advantages  obtained  in 
giving  to  the  prominence  of  the  idea  a  corresponding 
prominence  of  si^^^i.  Capital  letters  are,  therefore,  used  for 
the  sake  of  giving  distinction  to  certain  words,  so  that  the 
sense  may  be  more  obvious.  Notice  the  distinction  be- 
tween "Green  Mountains,"  and  "green  mountains";  be- 
tween "  White  Plains, "  and  "white  plains";  between  "the 
principles  of  the  Democratic  party,"  and  "democratic 
principles." 

Capitals  were  formerly  employed  with  far  greater  fre- 
quency than  now.  Almost  every  word  of  the  slightest 
importance  once  had  a  capital  as  its  initial.  A  few  great 
writers  of  the  present  day  make  an  excessive  use  of  capi- 
tals.     In  the  German  language  every  noun  begins  with  a 

capital;  but  there  is  no  reason  for  this  practice  in  the  En- 

(375) 


3/6  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

glish  language.     Capitals  are  of  advantage  only  when  used 
so  sparingly  as  to  contrast  with  small  letters. 

The  prevailing  practice  limits  the  use  of  capitals  chiefly 
to  the  following  cases: 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  senteiiee ;  as,  '^  Did  you  call 
John?"    ''No,  sir;   I  did  not." 

2.  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry ;  as, 

"  Over  the  rail 
My  hand  I  trail 
WitJiin  the  shadow  of  the  sail." 

3.  All  proper  nouns,  and  words  derived  from  tlievi ;  as, 
"Kiehn/ojul";  ''Central  America'' ;  "T\\q  French  nation"; 
"The  English  language";    "The  Alohammedan  religion." 

4.  TJie  names  of  tilings  strongly  personified ;  as,  "O  Sol- 
itude !  Where  are  the  charms  that  sages  have  seen  in  thy 
face";    "They  went  to  the  Butterfly  s  ball." 

5.  The  nanu's  of  religious  sects,  and  of  political  parties ;  as, 
"The  Brah)ni)is" ;  "The  Protestants";  "The  Democrats/' 

6.  The  names  of  imp07iant  historical  events ;  as,  ' '  The  Res- 
toration";  "The  Reformation";  "The  Declaratio)i  of  Jnde- 
peiulence. 

7.  Titles  of  office,  Jwnor,  or  respect,  especially  when  ap- 
plied to  a  particular  person  or  when  they  precede  a  name ; 
as,  "The  Count  of  Paris" ;  "President  Harrison" ;  "Queen 
ylnne";   "  Uncle  Jolin" ;  "Mrs.  Adams." 

If  such  titles  as  ^'/;/<^,  lord,  general,  etc.  occur  frequently 
and  are  not  followed  by  the  name,  the  capital  need  not  be 
used. 

8.  'The  names  of  the  days  of  the  zveek,  and  of  the  months 


CAPITALS  AND  PUNCTUATION.  377 

of  the  year,  but  not  of  the  seasons;  as,  "It  is  Monday  morn- 
ing"; "The  month  o{  December'' ;  "Snow  fell  during  the 
winter. ' '  * 

9.    A/I  names  of  Deity ;  3.5,  "The  A/ mighty";  "The  Diz'ine 
Architect ";  "  The  Most  High  ";  "  The  Orator  "; '  'Jehovah. " f 

10.  The  names  of  the  Bible,  and  a7iy  of  its  books ;  as, 
"The  Holy  Bible'';  "The  Neu'  Testament";  "The  Holy 
Scriptures  " ;   "  The  Gospel  of  John. "  X 

11.  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation;  as,  "He  replied, 
'My  coffers  are  empty. '  "  § 


-:•:  Note. — The  words  "  north,"  "  east,"  "  south,"  "  west,"  when  they  denote  parts 
of  a  country,  should  begin  with  capital  letters,  but  when  they  denote  simply  direc- 
tion, they  should  be  written  with  small  letters;  as,  "The  West  is  rapidly  develop- 
ing her  wealth  ";  "  Indiana  is  west  of  Ohio." 

j"NOTE  I. — Pronouns  referring  to  Deity,  when  equivalent  to  the  name  of  Deity, 
should  begin  with  a  capital  letter;  but  if  the  reference  is  perfectly  clear  the  capi- 
tals may  be  omitted.  In  the  best  editions  of  the  English  Bible  the  pronouns  are 
printed  with  small  letters,  unless  used  emphatically  without  a  noun  ;  as,  "  O  Thou 
that  hearest  prayer";   "To  Hhn  who  guards  us." 

Note  2. — When  a  name  of  Deity  is  applied  to  a  created  being,  it  does  not  be- 
gin with  a  capital ;  as,  "  The  Lord  is  a  great  God  above  all  gods." 

Note  3. — Providence,  when  used  to  mean  the  One  who  provides  for  us,  be- 
gins with  a  capital.  When  the  word  "  heaven  "  is  used  to  mean  the  Deity,  it  should 
Ijegin  with  a  capital ;  when  it  means  the  firmament,  it  should  begin  with  a  small 
letter;  when  it  refers  to  the  abode  of  the  blest,  it  is  written  by  some  with  a  capi- 
tal, and  by  others  with  a  small  letter:  usage  is  not  uniform. 

\  Note. —  Wlien  the  Bible  is  spoken  of  simply  as  a  book,  no  capital  is  needed  ; 
as,  "Seven  bibles  ^qxc  placed  upon  the  shelf." 

§  Note  i. — Should  the  quotation,  however,  consist  of  a  single  word  or  merely 
a  part  of  a  sentence,  the  capital  is  not  necessary. 

Note  2. — The  first  word  of  an  important  statement  should  begin  with  a  capital 

letter;  thus,  "The  question  is.   Who  shall  take  the  lead";  "  My  opinion  is  this:  If 

we  do  not  succeed  now,  we  shall  never  succeed." 
Rhet.— 32. 


378  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

12.  The  pronoun  I  and  the  viterjcction  O  are  always  capi- 
tals.     Single  letters  forming  abbreviatio7is  should  be  capitals. 

13.  In  the  titles  of  books,  or  the  headijigs  of  essays,  etc., 
every  noun,  adjective,  verb,  ajui  adverb  should  begin  with  a 
capital  letter. 

14.  The  first  word  of  each  of  a  series  of  nujnbered  clauses 
or  phrases  shoidd  begin  with  a  capital  letter;  as,  "He  di- 
rected his  efforts  to  these  points:  (i)  77/^:' necessity  for  gain- 
ing time ;  (2)  Hozv  time  might  be  gained  ;  (3)  That  the  way- 
he  recommended  was  the  only  practical  one." 

1 5 .  The  first  zvord  of  a  clause  or  a  sentence,  zvhen  used  as 
an  example,  should  begin  tvith  a  capital  letter.  Thus : 
"/^/v/rr  names  should  begin  with  capitals;  as,  ^ His  home 
is  in  Virginia.'  " 

1 6.  TJie  first  word  after  an  introductory  zvord  or  clause 
should  begin  zvith  a  capital;  as,  "Voted,  To  appoint  Mr. 
William  Brown  commissioner";  "Be  it  enacted,  'That  a 
tax  of  two  mills,"  etc. 

EXERCISE  LXXIX. 

Direction.  —  Correct  the  capitalization  of  the  following  examples,  and  give 
the  reason  for  every  change  : 

1.  Thou  shall  not  Steal. 

2.  have  you  studied  french  or  german? 

3.  June  and  July  are  Summer  months. 

4.  The  american  revolution  continued  eight  years. 

5.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  Study  of  the  holy  scriptures. 

6.  His  advice  to  his  little  Son  was,  "get  Money,  Boy,  get  Money." 

7.  i've  seen  yon  weary  Winter  sun 
twice  forty  times  return, 
and  every  Time  has  added  proofs 
that  Man  was  made  to  mourn. 


CAPITALS'  AND  PUNCTUATION.  379 

8.  The  general  assembly  meets  on  the  first  monday  in  January. 

9.  Three  cheers  were  given  for  the  "  champion  of  the  south." 

10.  The  bible  says,  "children,  obey  your  parents." 

11.  The  wars  of  the  roses  desolated  britain  between  the  years  1455 
and  1485. 

12.  He  flattered  himself  that  the  tories  might  be  induced  to  make 
some  concessions  to  the  dissenters,  on  condition  that  the  whigs  would 
be  lenient  to  the  Jacobites. 

13.  The  reign  of  queen  Anne  is  generally  admitted  to  have  been  the 
augustan  age  of  English  Literature. 

14.  The  work  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  use  of  schools:  (i)  by 
thorough  and  varied  exercises;  (2)  by  frequent  and  complete  reviews; 
(3)  by  simplicity  of  terms  and  arrangement. 

15.  Burke's  philosophical  iiiqtdry  into  the  origin  of  our  ideas  of  the 
sublime  and  beaictiful,  and  allison's  essays  on  the  nature  and  princi- 
ples of  taste,  are  works  of  permanent  value. 

16.  The  Guests  were  entertained  by  Senator  gray  at  his  Residence, 
no.  56  independence  avenue. 

17.  He  is  also  called  the  eternal,  the  almighty,  the  invisible,  the  in- 
finite, the  lord  of  Lords. 

18.  This,  o  king,  is  my  plea  for  mercy. 

19.  The  acts  of  the  apostles  and  revelation  were  his  favorite  parts 
of  the  new  testament. 

20.  Edward  the  elder  succeeded  his  father,  alfred  the  great. 

21.  The  koran  is  the  sacred  book  of  the  followers  of  mohammed. 

22.  We  crossed  the  rocky  mountains  just  about  daybreak. 

23.  Resolved,  that  every  citizen  be  allowed  to  exercise  his  rights  as 
a  voter. 

24.  The  City  of  galveston  is  on  galveston  Island. 

EXERCISE  LXXX. 


Direction. —  Distinguish  between  the  use  of  small  letters  and  capitals  in  the 
following  sentences : 

f  The  Devil  and  his  angels. 

\  The  devils  also  believe  and  tremble. 


M 


The  design  of  our  infinite  Creator. 

Either  the  world  has  a  creator,  or  it  exists  by  chance. 


380  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

He  has  xn^-ny  friends. 

William  Penn  was  accompanied  by  a  few  Friends. 
\    He  was  educated  in  a  university. 
(   He  was  a  student  at  the  University. 

i   You  Moon  !    Have  you  done  something  wrong  in  Heaven  that 
•j        God  has  hidden  your  face  ? 
(.  The  moon  climbs  the  high  heavens. 

(  Can  a  Roman  senate  long  debate  which  of  the  two  to  choose, 
A        slavery  or  death  ? 
(.  He  has  been  elected  to  the  Senate. 

Wave  your  boughs,  ye  oaks. 

This  struck  the  Oak  with  a  thought  of  admiration. 
f  He  referred  to  the  union  of  the  States. 

C  The  Union,  the  Constitution,  and  the  enforcement  of  the  Laws, 
f  They  murmured,  "T/ie  world  is  all  a  dream." 
(  They  murmured  that  "  t/ie  world  is  all  a  dream." 


9 


Punctuation  of  the  Simple  Sentence. 

The  meaning  of  a  sentence  is  made  clear  chiefly  by  a 
proper  arrangement  of  its  words ;  but  sometimes,  in  writ- 
ten or  printed  discourse,  by  proper  punctuation,  which  en- 
ables the  eye  to  take  in  more  readily  the  sense  of  a  passage. 
The  marks  used  for  this  purpose  are  called  Punctuation 
Marks.     These  marks  are  : 

The  period  .  The  interrogation  point     ? 

The  comma  ,  The  exclamation  point       ! 

The  semicolon  ;  The  quotation  marks     "  " 

The  colon  :  The  dash  — 

The  apostrophe  '  The  parenthesis  (  ) 

The  hyphen  -  The  caret  A* 


■  Note.— Tlie  rules  for  the  punctuation  of  the  simple  sentence  apply  equally 
well  tij  the  clauses  of  complex,  and  ti;  the  members  of  compound,  sentences. 


CAPITALS  AND  PUNCTUATION.  38 1 

The  Period. 

In  the  punctuation  of  simple  sentences  the  only  points 
used  are  the  terminal  marks,  the  apostrophe,  and  the 
comma. 

Terminal  marks  are  the  marks  placed  at  the  end  of  sen- 
tences. They  are  the  period,  the  interrogation  point,  and 
the  exclamation  point. 

Rule  I. — Every  sentence  not  i)itcn'ogative  or  exclamatory 
must  be  follozved  by  a  period. 

Rule  II. — A  period  is  used  after  every  abbreviatiott ;  as, 
*'Mr.Jas.  Green'';  "  F.  M.  C.  A." 

Rule  III. — Roman  nnmcrals,  /leadings,  and  signatures^ 
must  be  follozved  by  a  period;  as,  "  Cliapter  IV.";  "  Coiv- 
pers   Task.'';   "  H.  M.  Godzvin." 

EXERCISE  LXXXI. 

Direction. —  In  the  following  examples  make  whatever  abbreviations  would 
be  proper,  and  punctuate  according  to  the  rules: 

1.  President  Elliott,  Doctor  of  Divinity,  Doctor  of  Laws. 

2.  Colonel  Irving  is  the  guest  of  Governor  Gordon. 

3.  Gentlemen  Bell,  Dale,  and  Company,  Saint  Louis,  Missouri. 

4.  Charles  Pollard,  Master  of  Arts. 

5.  Charles  I.,  King  of  England,  was  beheaded. 

6.  The  Right  Reverend  Henry  Carrol  Potter,  Bishop  of  Chicago, 
is  visiting  relatives  at  34  Jefferson  Street. 

7.  Mister  Lawrence  Barrett,  the  American  actor,  was  traveling  in 
Europe. 

8.  The  examination  was  held  October  the  second,  at  two  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon. 

9.  Farm  Ballads  By  Will  Carleton. 

10.  Baltimore,  Maryland,  November  8,  1886. 


382  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

The  Apostrophe. 

Rule  I. — All  nouns  in  the  singular,  and  all  plurals  not 
ending  in  ''s,"  form  their  possessives  by  the  addition  of  the 
"apostrophe''  and  "s";  as,  ''The  girl's  cloak";  "The 
men's  boots." 

Plurals  ending  in  "s"  add  the  "apostrophe"  only;  as, 
"The  girls'  cloaks";  "The  ladies    books." 

Rule  II.  —  The  apostrophe  is  used  to  denote  the  elision  of 
a  letter  or  syllable  ;  as,  "O'er  the  wide  plain";  "He'll  ne'er 
come  back." 

The  Comma. 

Rule  I. — Nouns  in  apposition,  zvhen  accompanied  by  mod- 
ifying words  or  phrases,  are  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence  by  a  comma,  or  by  commas ;  as,  "Washington,  tJie 
first  President,  was  a  Virginian  ";  "  Collins  the  poet  admired 
Fairfax,  the  translator  of  Dante."  * 

EXERCISE  LXXXII. 

Direction.  —  Punctuate  the  following  e.xamplcs,  and  give  reasons: 

1.  Brabantio  a  rich  senator  of  Venice  had  a  fair  daughter  the 
gentle  Desdemona. 

2.  Lord  Alfred  Tennyson  the  poet-laureate  of  England  wrote  The 
Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade. 

3.  At  Waterloo  the  allied  armies  defeated  Napoleon  the  greatest 
general  of  modern  times. 

4.  See  the  beautiful  flowers  the  attendants  of  Spring ! 


*  Note. —  If  the  appositional  expression  is  restrictive,  no  commas  arc  needed; 
thus,  "  The  emperor  Augustus  was  a  patron  of  the  fine  arts";  "  The  apostle  John" ; 
' '  A  If  red  the  Grea  t. ' ' 


CAPITALS  AND  PUNCTUATION.  383 

5.  Sir  Walter  Scott  the  author  of  the  Waver/ey  Novels  possessed 
great  legendary  lore. 

6.  Shakespeare  the  bard  of  Avon  was  born  in  1 564. 

7.  Webster  the  orator  and  statesman  was  a  native  of  New  Hamp- 
shire. 

8.  Diogenes  the  Greek  philosopher  was  a  cynic. 

9.  Much  stress  was  laid  by  the  greatest  of  the  ancient  orators  De- 
mosthenes upon  delivery. 

10.  Paul  the  apostle  was  a  bitter  persecutor  of  the  faith  he  after- 
wards preached  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

Rule  II. — A  noiiii  independent  by  address  must  be  set  off 
by  a  conwia,  or  by  commas ;  as,  "Why  sleepest  thou,  Eve''; 
''Plato,  thou  reasonest  well";  "Tell  me,  my  friend,  all  the 
circumstances." 

EXERCISE  LXXXIII. 

Direction. — -Punctuate  the  following  examples,  and  give  reasons: 

1.  My  son  give  me  thy  heart. 

2.  Acquire  my  daughters  the  habit  of  doing  everything  well. 

3.  O  tiny  ant  you're  a  busy  fellow! 

4.  O  sleepless  God  forever  keep  both  living  and  dead. 

5.  Your  son  my  Lord  has  paid  a  soldier's  debt. 

6.  How  could  he  mark  thee  for  the  tomb  my  proud  boy  Absalom  ? 

7.  Master  I  marvel  at  nothing. 

8.  Accept  my  dear  young  friends  this  expression  of  my  regard. 

9.  I  rise  Mr.  President  to  a  point  of  order. 

10.  It  was  then  good  friends  that  your  assistance  was  most  needed. 

Rule  III. — A  phrase  formed  by  a  noun  used  absolutely 
with  a  participle,  viust  be  set  off  by  a  comma,  or  by  cojn- 
mas ;  as,  ''Shame being  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost";  "Then  came 
Jesus,  the  doors  being  shut,  and  stood  in  the  midst."  * 


*N0IE. — The  participle  in  an  absolute  phrase  can  always  be  converted  into 
a  verb  having  the  noun  for  its  subject.  Thus,  "Shame  being  lost"  is  equivalent 
to,  "  When  shame  is  /osi,"  which  is  a  temporal  adverbial  clause. 


384  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

EXERCISE  LXXXIV. 

Direction. —  Punctuate  the  following  examples,  and  give  reasons: 

1.  Occupation  being  absent  there  is  not  necessarily  rest. 

2.  People  are  seldom  ungrateful  to  us  we  continuing  in  condition 
to  assist  them. 

3.  These  matters  having  been  arranged  the  company  separated. 

4.  They  creep  to  bed  the  tales  done  and  sleep  lulled  by  whisper- 
ing winds. 

5.  The  passions  having  been  subdued  a  man's  worst  enemies  are 
subdued. 

6.  These  truths  being  known  what  honest  triumph  flushed  their 
breasts. 

7.  They  having  made  gestures  of  authority  he  severed  the  thongs 
of  the  captive  with  a  knife. 

8.  Hope  lost  all  faith  is  lost. 

9.  His  promise  secured  we  rested  in  confident  expectation. 

Rule  IV.  —  Three  or  more  zuords  used  in  a  scries  in  the 
same  construction  are  generally  set  off  by  commas ;  as,  ' '  The 
South  produces  sugar,  cotton,  and  corn'' ;  ' '  The  lo/ty,  rugged, 
snow-capped  Andes  traverse  South  America."* 


»NoTE. — When  all  the  words  are  connected  by  conjunctions,  the  commas 
may  be  omitted;  as,  "The  South  produces  sugar  and  cotton  and  corn."  When 
no  conjunction  is  placed  between  the  last  two  words  in  the  series,  the  words 
should  be  separated  from  each  other  and  from  what  follows,  by  a  comma;  as, 
"  The  sun,  the  moon,  the  planets,  the  stars,  are  all  in  motion."  An  element  indicat- 
ing a  common  reference  or  dependence  upon  each  word  of  the  series  is  sep- 
arated by  a  comma;  as,  "Charity  beareth,  believeth,  hopeth,  all  things."  To 
this  rule,  however,  adjectives  and  adverbs  form  an  exception ;  as,  "  He  was  a 
brave,  pious,  patriotic  prince";  "The  duty  was  strictly,  bravely,  cheerfully 
performed." 

Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  regarding  words  as  in  the  same  grammatical 
construction  because  they  happen  to  be  the  same  part  of  speech.  In  the  expres- 
sion, "  A  large  white  owl,"  the  first  adjective  qualifies  the  second  adjective  and  the 
noun  taken  together,  and  not  simply  the  noun.  It  would  be  wrong  to  write  the 
expression,  "A  large,  white  owl." 


CAPITALS  AND  PUNCTUATION.  385 

EXERCISE  LXXXV. 

Direction.  —  Punctuate  the  following  examples,  and  give  reasons: 

1.  Punish  guide  instruct  the  boy. 

2.  For  all  was  blank  bleak  and  gray. 

3.  Holly  mistletoe  red  berries  ivy  turkeys  all  vanished  instantly. 

4.  All  was  deep  and  dark  and  cold. 

5.  The  earth  the  air  the  water  teem  with  life. 

6.  Our  friend  was  a  wise  prudent  and  influential  citizen. 

7.  Trees  vines  hedges  shrubs  encircle  the  house. 

8.  There  are  pictures  telling  stories  of  mercy  hope  courage  faith 
and  charity. 

9.  He  was  wise  prudent  cautious  in  all  his  actions. 

10.  Kings  rose  reigned  and  fell. 

11.  Days  and  months  and  years  have  passed  since  we  saw  him. 

Rule  V.  —  T%vo  woj-ds  used  in  the  same  cojistruction  should 
not  be  separated  by  a  comma,  tmless  the  connective  is  omitted  ; 
as,  "The  South  produces  sugar  and  cotton'';  "The  lofty 
and  rugged  Andes  traverse  South  America  ";  "Sloivly,  sadly 
we  laid  him  down."* 

EXERCISE  LXXXVI. 

Direction. — Punctuate  the  following  examples,  iind  give  the  reasons: 

1.  Truth  virtue  are  the  wealth  of  all  men. 

2.  Rash  fruidess  war  is  only  splendid  murder. 

3.  They  flew  to  the  better  country  the  upper  day. 

4.  The  dmes  made  Brutus  an  assassin  and  traitor. 

5.  The  bed  or  channel  of  the  river  is  wide. 


«NOTE. — To  this  rule  there  are  two  exceptions:  (i)  When  two  words  con- 
nected by  "or"  mean  the  same  thing,  they  may  be  separated  by  commas;  as, 
"The  sky,  or  firmament,  is  above  us."  (2)  In  the  case  of  two  words  or  phrases 
joined  by  way  of  contrast,  a  comma  is  placed  after  the  first;  as,  "It  is  not 
John,  but  William" ;  "  He  is  foor,  but  honest." 
Rhet.— 33. 


386  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

6.  The  Puritans  gave  the  world  not  thought  but  action. 

7.  Yeast  is  added  to  dough  to  convert  or  to  change  some  of  the 
starch  into  sugar. 

8.  The  world  saw  Marie  Antoinette  decorating  cheering  her  ele- 
vated sphere. 

9.  The  Saxon  words  in  English  are  short  chiefly  monosyllabic. 
10.  Virtuous  and  wise  he  was  but  not  severe. 

Rule  VI. —  Words  used  in  pairs  take  a  comma  after  each 
pair;  as,  ' '  Truth  is  fair  and  artless,  simple  and  sincere,  uni- 
form a?id  consistent ";  '  *  Eating  or  drinking,  laboring  or  sleep- 
ing, let  us  do  all  in  moderation." 


EXERCISE  LXXXVII. 

Direction. —  Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  and  give  reasons: 

1.  The  poor  and  the  rich  the  weak  and  the  strong  the  young  and 
the  old  have  one  common  Father. 

2.  Earth  and  sky  land  and  water  mountain  and  valley  bear  traces 
of  divine  workmanship. 

3.  Anarchy  and  confusion  poverty  and  distress  desolation  and  ruin 
are  the  consequences  of  civil  war. 

4.  Hope  and  despondency  joy  and  sorrow  pleasure  and  pain  di- 
versify life  with  their  sudden  contrasts. 

5.  I  inquired  and  rejected  consulted  and  deliberated  for  ten  years. 

6.  Houses  and  lands  offices  and  honors  gold  and  bonds  are  noth- 
ing to  the  man  at  Death's  door. 

Rule  VII. — Participial  and  adjective  phrases  not  restrict- 
ive must  be  set  off  by  commas ;  as,  ' '  The  Indian  monarch, 
stunned  and  bewildered,  saw  his  faithful  subjects  falling 
around  him,"  * 


*  Note. — If  the  phrase  is  restrictive  it  limits  the  meaning  of  the  noun  it  modi- 
fies to  a  particular  sense,  which  would  be  wholly  changed  by  the  omission  of  the 
phrase.  Thus :  "A  eity  set  on  a  hill  can  not  be  liid  ";  "  Walls  built  of  stone  are 
durable." 


CAPITALS  AND  PUNCTUATION.  38/ 


EXERCISE  LXXXVIII. 

Direction. —  Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  and  give  reasons: 

1.  The  Nile  rising  to  a  certain  height  makes  Egypt  fruitful; 

2.  Then  comes  the  infant  riding  his  father's  walking-stick. 

3.  'Twas  but  the  car  rattling  o'er  the  stony  street. 

4.  I  threw  open  the  shutters  admitting  a  flood  of  brilliant  moonlight. 

5.  Seated  on  the  old  mail-coach  we  needed  no  evidence  out  of 
ourselves  to  indicate  the  velocity. 

6.  The  laws  relating  to  the  preservation  of  game  are  in  every  coun- 
try uncommonly  rigorous. 

7.  Ores  are  natural  compounds  being  produced  by  nature. 

8.  Our  troops  putting  themselves  in  order  of  battle  calmly  waited 
the  charge  of  the  enemy. 

9.  They  lived  in  a  cottage  thatched  with  straw. 

Rule  VIII. — Inverted p/unscs,  and  pJirases  standing  par- 
enthetically between  the  main  parts  of  the  sentence,  arc  gener- 
ally set  off  by  commas ;  as,  '  *  To  illustrate  the  matter,  let  me 
tell  you  a  story";  "The  richest  of  men  may,  from  ivant 
of  proper  culture,  fail  to  grace  society." 

EXERCISE  LXXXIX. 
Direction.  —  Punctuate  the  following  examples,  and  give  reasons: 

1.  Man  even  in  his  lower  state  is  a  noble  work. 

2.  Of  all  the  senses  sight  is  the  most  perfect. 

3.  To  confess  the  truth  I  never  could  understand  his  position. 

4.  Truth  like  gold  shines  brighter  by  collision. 

5.  To  the  wise  and  good  old  age  presents  a  scene  of  tranquil  en- 
joyment. 

6.  In  order  to  succeed  in  study  the  cultivation  of  attention  is  neces- 
sary. 

7.  A  spiritual  nature  to  grow  in  power  demands  spiritual  liberty. 

8.  To  the  wise  and  prudent  misfortune  seldom  comes. 

9.  Nature  through  all  her  works  delights  in  variety. 


588 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


Rule  IX. — Adverbs  and  short  phrases  tvhcn  used  nearly 
or  quite  independeiitly'y  are  set  off  by  commas ;  as,  '  'Away,  tJien, 
they  dashed  through  thick  and  thin";  "//^  truth,  I  have 
Httle  hope  of  his  doing  well." 

The  following  words  and  phrases  are  commonly  used  as 
independent : 


however, 

indeed, 

moreover, 

namely, 

in  truth, 

in  fact, 

in  the  meantime, 

in  the  first  place, 

for  the  most  part. 


then, 

therefore, 

too, 

surely, 

in  a  word, 

in  short, 

without  doubt, 

to  be  sure, 

on  the  contrary, 


perhaps, 
consequently, 
finally, 
hence, 
of  course, 
after  all, 
to  be  brief, 
beyond  question, 
as  it  happens. 


EXERCISE  XC. 


Direction. — Punctuate  the  following  examples,  and  give  reasons: 

1.  Finally  let  us  announce  our  conclusion. 

2.  Well  what  shall  we  say  in  reply  ? 

3.  The  work  was  however  very  poorly  done. 

4.  Again  there  are  some  points  to  be  overlooked. 

5.  On  the  contrary  there  is  great  danger  in  delay. 

6.  There  are  after  all  several  of  us  in  the  secret. 

7.  Every  man  therefore  should  be  at  his  post. 

8.  Besides  this  may  be  useful  to  you  in  after  life. 

9.  On  the  other  hand  continue  to  preserve  a  calm  demeanor. 

10.  Feudalism  is  in  fact  the  embodiment  of  pride. 

1 1.  Roland's  death  too  is  supernatural. 

12.  It  is  then  a  mark  of  wisdom  to  live  virtuously. 

13.  We  must  however  pay  some  respect  to  the  opinions  of  one  who 
has  had  so  large  an  experience. 

14.  I  have  shown  how  just  and  equitable  the  arrangement  is  and 
now  what  is  the  fair  conclusion  ? 

15.  The  nation  in  the  meantime  is  free  from  danger. 


CAPITALS  AND  PUNCTUATION.  389 

EXERCISE  XCI. 

Direction. — Fill  out  the  blanks  with  a  noun  in  the  possessive.    Make  simple 
sentences,  punctuating  properly : 


1.  Care  keeps  his  watch  in  every  old  — 

2.  colors  are  the  most  beautiful 


3.  cup  is  full  of  bitterness 

4.  It  is  excellent  to  have  a strength 

5.  This horse  is  lame 

6.  I  read letter 

7.  Hope  is  a staff 

8.  Peter  the  hermit  excited  his passions 

9.  The  royal palace  was  destroyed  by  fire 

Direction. — Fill  out  the  blanks  with  a  noun  in  apposition.     Make  simple 
sentences,  punctuating  properly : 

1.  Benedict  Arnold died  in  obscurity 

2.  Victoria' is  a  noble  woman 

3.  A  doctor soon  set  the  broken  arm 

4.  Art makes  mighty  things  from  small  beginnings  grow 

5.  Man can  speak 

6.  Elizabeth was  a  wise  ruler 

7.  Chaucer died  in  the  first  year  of  the  fifteenth  century 

8.  The  old  guard was  invincible 

9.  Tom  Thumb was  exhibited  by  Barnum 

10.  The  horse was  scared  by  a  snail 

11.  Dr.  Kane deserves  to  rank  with  Livingston 

12.  The  greatest  poet  among  the  ancients was  blind 

13.  The  book  was  edited  by  Bayard  Taylor 

Direction.  —  Fill  out  the  blanks  with  a  noun  independent  by  direct  address. 
Make  simple  sentences,  punctuating  properly  : 

1.  Come to  see  my  desk 

2.  Accept this  gift 

3.  Draw draw  your  arrows  to  the  head 

4.  Are  you  ready 

5.  you  are  now  dismissed 

6.  have  you  learned  your  lesson 


390 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


7.  Welcome 

8.  I  am 

9.  O help  me 


to  a  foreiEcn  fireside 


your  friend 


Direction. —  Fill  the  blanks  with  a  noun  used  absolutely  with  a  participle. 
Make  simple  sentences,  punctuating  properly: 


the  army  began  its  march 
her  sister  returned 
the  prisoner  was  released 
does  that  settle  the  question 


—  Pompey  prepared  for  battle 

—  we  should  spend  it  wisely 

—  they  were  dismissed  at  once 

—  a  dispute  arose  as  to  the  succession 

—  the  engines  returned 


EXERCISE  XCII. 


Direction. —  Punctuate  the  following  examples,  and  give  reasons: 

1.  A  moral  sensible  and  well-bred  man  will  not  affront  me 

2.  Alone  on  a  wide  wide  sea 

3.  The  deed  was  done  nobly  bravely  modestly 

4.  Honor  and  truth  kindness  and  modesty  were  remarked  in  him 

5.  Tops  marbles  skates  books  all  received  in  turn  his  attention 

6.  There  were  gathered  together  grace  and  female  loveliness  wit 
and  learning  the  representatives  of  every  science  and  of  every  art 

7.  His  face  was  pale  and  worn  but  serene 

8.  There  stood  the  ingenious  the  chivalrous  the  high-souled  Wind- 
ham 

9.  Here  the  rye  the  peas  and  the  oats  were  high  enough  to  conceal 
a  man 

10.  These  fields  were  overgrown  with  fern  and  brambles 

11.  We  were  at  the  entrance  of  a  small  inlet  or  bay 

12.  Before  this  duty  honor  love  humanity  fell  prostrate 

13.  Morality  and  conscience  and  principle  were  to  Napoleon  em- 
bodied in  the  word  "fame" 

14.  Lend  lend  your  wings 


CAPITALS  AND  PUNCTUATION.  39 1 

EXERCISE  XCIII. 

Direction.  —  Fill  out  the  blanks  with  a  participial  or  adjective  phrase.   Make 
simple  sentences,  punctuating  properly  : 

1.  The  venerable  man took  his  friend  by  the  hand 

2.  The  battle-scarred  veteran had  signified  his  purpose  of 

returning  to  his  native  mountains 

3.  The  orator  began  to  speak  — • 

4.  The  peers were  marshaled  by  the  heralds  under  Gaiter- 

King-at-Arms. 

5.  Last  of  all  came  the  Prince  of  Wales 

6.  Hannah sat  down  to  rock  to  and  fro 

7.  She  stood  behind  the  curtain 

8.  the  peddler  betook  himself  to  flight 


9.  The  cathedrals are  magnificent 

10.  A  person of  those could  hardly  help  analyzing 

the  impression  produced  by  such  a  face 

Direction. —  Fill  out  the  blanks  with  an  inverted  or  parenthetical  phrase. 
Make  simple  sentences;  punctuate  properly: 

1.  She  began to  talk  in  a  hoarse  broken  voice 

2.  Amy longed  eagerly  to  be  at  home 

3.  I  have  looked  into  the  old  books 

4.  I  proceed to  ask  a  considerable  number  of  questions 

5.  he  seemed  to  make  little  distinction  between  the  good 

and  the  bad 

6.  I  was much  obliged  by  him 

7.  Warren  Hastings  amused  himself  with  embellishing  his 

grounds 

8.  there  is  a  grassy  ledge  or  shelf 

g.  a  hot  debate  ensued 

10.  I  see  the  brightness  of  the  future 

Direction. —  Fill  out  the  blanks  with  an  adverb  or  short  phrase  used  inde- 
pendently.    Make  simple  sentences: 

1.  The  stranger quickened  his  horse  to  an  equal  pace 

2.  the  governess  had  been  taken  suddenly  ill 

3.  It  comes like  the  bursting  forth  of  volcanic  fires 

4.  Let  us open  their  doors 


392  COMPOSITiaN   AND  RHETORIC. 

5.  The  war must  go  on 

6.  You  and  I may  rue  it 

7.  I  conjure  you to  respect  and  love  one  another 

8.  slie  bids  fair  to  excel  in  this  art 

9.  I  am  perplexed 

10.  I  will  join  you 

1 1.  Every  colony has  expressed  its  willingness  to  follow 

12. gentlemen  I  would  prefer  being  the  author  of  that  poem 

to  the  glory  of  beating  the  French  to-morrow 


Punctuation  of  the  Complex  Sentence. 

The  Comma. 

In  addition  to  the  rules  given  for  the  punctuation  of  the 
simple  sentence,  which  apply  also  to  the  main  divisions  of 
the  complex  sentence,  are  the  following  special  rules  for 
punctuating  the  complex  sentence. 

Rule  I.  —  Adverbial  clauses  introducing  a  proposition  or 
sta7iding  parenthetically  betzveen  the  parts  of  the  principal 
clause,  are  set  off  by  eomuias ;  as,  "  If  the  soul  is  immortal, 
its  character  will  determine  its  destiny";  "'Honesty,' 
as  the  proverb  runs,    'is  the  best  policy.'" 

The  adverbial  clause  is  always  separated  from  the  rest 
of  the  sentence  unless  the  connection  is  very  close.  The 
following  are  examples  of  the  close  connection  which  needs 
no  comma, — the  clause  being  of  a  restrictive  character: 
"Be  ready  when  he  comes'';  "The  pursuit  did  not  cease 
////  the  thief  zuas  caught."  * 


■•■■Note. — For  the  same  reason,  clauses  joined  by  the  conjunction  that  should 
not  be  separated  by  a  comma,  unless  the  conjunction  is  removed  some  distance 
from  the  verb  or  the  words  "  in  order"  precede  that,  thus  causing  the  grammatical 
continuity  to  be  somewhat  broken;  as,  "  He  went  away  that  you  might  come"; 
"  He  used  every  available  form  of  assistance  t/iathc  might  succeed";  "  He  labors, 
i/i  order  that  he  may  gain  a  livelihood." 


CAPITALS  AND  PUNCTUATION.  393 

EXERCISE  XCIV. 

Direction. — Punctuate,  and  give  reasons: 

1.  Though  He  slay  me  yet  will  I  trust  in  Him 

2.  When  the  white  blossoms  of  the  hawthorn  came  out  he  left  the 
island  with  a  little  army  of  brave  men 

3.  When  the  revel  was  over  the  minstrel  stole  away  to  the  forest 

4.  How  much  kinder  Heaven  is  to  us  than  we  are  to  each  other 

5.  The  sun  had  set  before  the  battle  was  decided 

6.  When  all  was  ready  he  cut  a  way  for  the  river  to  flow  into  these 
artificial  troughs 

7.  If  you  desire  success  you  must  win  it 

8.  If  at  first  you  don't  succeed  try  try  again 

9.  If  you  would  be  pungent  be  brief 

10.  As  he  took  his  seat  every  lip  quivered 

11.  Wolfe  while  he  was  urging  his  battalions  in  this  charge  received 
a  slight  wound  in  the  wrist 

12.  Crown  me  with  flowers  that  I  may  thus  enter  upon  eternal  sleep 

Rule  II. — Adjective  clauses  are  set  off  by  coninias,  except 
tvhen  they  are  '  *  restrictive. 

The  adjective  clause,  when  restrictive,  is  too  closely  con- 
nected to  admit  of  the  comma  ;  as,  "  The  man  that  had  the 
line  in  his  hand  went  eastward."  If  the  clause  is  non- 
restrictive,  or  additional,  (that  is,  if  it  merely  adds  a  thought 
without  limiting  the  meaning  of  the  antecedent,)  it  may, 
without  change  of  sense,  be  converted  into  an  independent 
proposition,  a  co-ordinate  conjunction  and  a  personal  pro- 
noun being  put  in  the  place  of  the  relative;  thus,  "I  gave 
him  a  flower,  ivhich  he  rudely  crushed.''  Here  the  relative 
clause  is  simply  additional ;  hence,  the  same  thought  may 
be  expressed  by  means  of  two  independent  propositions; 
as,   ''I gave  Jam  a  flotver,   and  he  rudely  crushed  it.'' 

Sometimes  a  clause  may  be  punctuated  as  either  addi- 
tional or  restrictive,  but  with  a  different  meaning  for  each. 


394  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 


EXERCISE  XCV. 

Direction. — Punctuate,  and  give  reasons: 

1.  I  did  send  to  you  for  certain  sums  of  gold  which  you  denied  me 

2.  Woe  to  the  hands  that  shed  innocent  blood 

3.  Curses  always  recoil  on  the  head  of  him  who  imprecates  them 

4.  The  girl  forgot  all  about  the  lesson  which  she  had  to  learn 

5.  The  enthusiasm  of  the  orator  infected  all  who  were  near  him 

6.  Walpole  tells  a  story  which  is  much  too  good  to  be  true 

7.  He  deserved  all  the  praise  which  he  has  ever  received 

8.  The  bran  of  wheat  which  is  the  covering  of  the  kernel  is  made 
up  of  several  layers 

9.  Hampden  was  struck  by  two  bullets  which  broke  the  shoulder- 
bone 

Rule  III. — A  tioun  clause  zv/ieji  long,  ^vhcn  ending  with  a 
verb,  or  when  resembli)ig  a  quotation  in  form,  is  set  off  by  a 
comma. 

In  all  other  cases,  no  comma  is  required.  The  follow- 
ing examples  illustrate  the  punctuation  of  the  noun  clause : 
'  *  That  you  have  wronged  me  doth  appear  in  this  ";  "  Seneca 
says  that  there  is  a  settled  friendsJiip  betiveen  God  and  men  "; 
' '  That  this  i)ivention  may  be  capable  of  great  improvemeiit, 
is  not  doubted." 

EXERCISE  XCVI. 

Direction. — Punctuate,  and  give  reasons: 

1.  "I  will  try  "  has  done  wonders 

2.  That  the  earth  is  round  is  now  well  known 

3.  It  is  an  old  saying  that  open  admonition  is  open  disgrace 

4.  Whatever  is  is  right 

5.  That  he  has  maintained  a  steady  course  amid    all  the   adver- 
sities of  life  marks  a  great  mind 

6.  You  say  that  Edward  is  your  brother's  son 


CAPITALS  AND  PUNCTUATION. 


395 


7.  A  law  of  the  nature  of  water  is  that  under  the  mean  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere  at  the  level  of  the  sea  it  boils  at  212°  Fahrenheit 

8.  O  say  what  may  it  be 

9.  What  man  dare  I  dare 

m.  I  hear  the  great  commanding  Warwick  is  thither  gone 

11.  "Dust  thou  art  to  dust  returnest"  was  not  written  of  the  soul 

12.  Another  rule  is  not  to  let  familiarity  swallow  up  all  courtesy 


EXERCISE  XCVII. 

Direction. — Fill  out  the  blanks  with  adverbial  clauses,  and  justify  jour 
punctuation : 


1.  He  gladly  returned  home 

2.  The  king  reigned  but  a  short  time 

3.  1  will  obey  them  in  this 

4.  Foul  deeds  will  rise  


5.  They  resolved  to  detain  him ■ 

6.  he  was  followed  by  a  crowd  of  curious  watchers 

7.  there  is  no  transgression 

8.  True  hope  is  swift  and  flies 

9.  Follow  a  good  commander 

10.  the  faithful  dog  follows 

1 1 .  be  not  terrified 

12.  Watch 

13.  My  brother  is  older 


Direction. — Fill  out  the  blanks  with  adjective  clauses;  justify  your  punc- 
tuation: 

1.  My  children appeared  transported  with  joy 

2.  Show  me  the  room 

3.  He never  can  be  wise 

4.  I  am  satisfied  with  those  pleasures 

5.  He  remembered  all  the  joyous  scenes 

6.  They  could  find  only  one  apartment 

7.  I  love  everything 

8.  The  Nile  is  one  of  those  rivers  


9.  The  flowers have  all  faded 


39^5  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

10.  The  clergyman died  yesterday  at  the  very  hour 

11.  John  Wychffe died  in  1384 

12.  The  earth is  a  globe  or  sphere 

13.  Offices  of  trust  should  be  conferred  only  on  those 


Direction. — Fill  out  the  blanks  with  noun  clauses;  describe  the  use  cf  each 
clause,  and  justify  your  punctuation: 

I.  He  insisted 


2.  was  a  mystery  to  all  his  friends 

3.  Nobody  will  ever  know 

4.  A  raven  observed 

5.  The  ancient  Greeks  believed 

6.  There  was  no  such  expectation 

7.  How  shall  I  know 

8.  is  perfectly  true 

9.  I  perceive 

10.  I  was  taught  in  my  youth 


1 1.  The  king  could  not  understand 

12.  doth  appear  in  this 

13.  is  a  traitor 

14.  I  promise  to  do 


Punctuation  of  the  Compound  Sentence. 

Co.M.MA,  Semicolon,  and  Colon. 

Rule  I.  —  The  parts  of  a  compoiind predicate,  each  simple 
co-07-dinate  expression,  especially  if  long-  and  differently  modi- 
fied, must  be  separated  from  each  other  by  the  comma ;  as, 
"  Lsrael  shall  blossom,  and  bnd,  and  fill  the  face  of  the  world 
with  fruit";  "She  looked  so  yoiuig  and  merry,  and  used  snch 
simple  but  expressive  gestures,  and  spoke  in  sucJi  a  clear,  soft 
voice  that  the  children  sat  as  if  spell-bound  ";  "The  kitchen 
ivas  of  spacious  dinunsions,  hung  round  with  copper  and 
tin  vessels  highly  polished,  and  decorated  here  and  there 
with  a  Ciiristmas  sreen. " 


CAPITALS  AND  PUNCTUATION,  397 

EXERCISE  XCVIII. 

Direction. — Punctuate,  and  give  reasons: 

1.  Grief  lies  in  my  bed  walks  up  and  down  with  me 

2.  Brother  and  sister  wound  their  arms  around  each  other  and  fell 
fast  asleep 

3.  In  the  best  books  great  men  talk  to  us  give  us  their  most  pre- 
cious thoughts  and  pour  their  souls  into  ours 

4.  A  strong  mind  always  hopes  and  has  always  cause  to  hope 

5.  Miss  Celia  rose  as  she  spoke  and  led  the  way  to  the  dressing- 
room 

6.  The  creature  rolled  ecstatically  at  her  feet  licked  her  hands  and 
gazed  into  her  face 

Rule  II.  —  If  the  members  of  the  compoimd  sentence  are 
short,  or  if  they  are  closely  connected,  only  the  comma  should 
be  placed  betzueen  them  ;  as,  ' '  The  leader  died,  and  the  en- 
terprise was  a  failure";  "Pride  hardens  the  heart,  but  hu- 
mility softens  it." 

Rule  III. — If  the  members  of  the  compound  sentence  are 
long,  or  if  they  are  not  closely  connected,  the  senueolon  sJioidd 
be  used  to  separate  them.  Sometimes  the  connection  is  so 
slight  that  the  colon  is  placed  betiveen  the  members.  The 
following  are  examples : 

"It  is  easy  in  the  world  to  live  after  the  world's  opinion; 
it  is  easy  in  solitude  to  live  after  our  own ;  but  the  great 
man  is  he  who  in  the  midst  of  the  crowd  keeps  with  perfect 
sweetness  the  independence  of  solitude  ";  "In  every  work 
of  genius  we  recognize  our  own  rejected  thoughts:  they 
come  back  to  us  with  a  certain  alienated  majesty  ";  "  These 
little  words  are  called  particles  merely  in  reference  to  the 
diminutive  space  they  occupy ;  but  this  quantitative  term 
is  far  wide  of  their  spiritual  significance." 


398  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Rule  IV.  —  Tlie  meinbcrs  of  a  compound  sentence,  which 
are  tlienis elves  subdivided  by  commas,  are  separated  by  semi- 
colons ;  if  the  members  contain  semicolons,  they  are  commonly 
separated  from  each  other  by  colons;  as,  "Young  frogs  in 
thousands  are  issuing  from  the  waters,  and  traversing  the 
roads ;  and  birds,  having  terminated  their  spring  cares,  are 
out  enjoying  their  famihes  in  the  sunny  and  plentiful  fields"; 
"The  feeblest  and  most  far-away  torrent  among  the  high 
hills  has  its  companions :  the  goats  browse  beside  it ;  and 
the  traveler  drinks  from  it,  and  passes  over  it  with  his  staff; 
and  the  peasant  traces  a  new  channel  for  it  down  to  his 
mill-wheel." 

Rule  V. — A  comma  is  used  to  denote  the  omissioji  of  a 
noun  or  verb  within  the  propositions ;  as,  "To  err  is  human  ; 
to  forgive,  divine";  "To  suffer  is  the  lot  of  all;  to  bear, 
the  glory  of  a  few";  "I  bought  good  butter  at  30  cents 
per  pound;  better,  at  50  cents." 


EXERCISE  XCIX. 


Direction.  —  Explain  tlic  punctuation: 

/    I.  Economy  is  no  disgrace;  it  is  better  to  live  on  a  little  than  to 
outlive  a  great  deal. 

2.  It  is  not  sorrow;  it  is  not  despondency;  it  is  not  gloom. 

3.  Resides,  Mrs.  Sparrowgrass  had  bought  a  rattle  when  she  was 
in  Philadelphia;  such  a  rattle  as  watchmen  carry  there. 

4.  His  knife  is  still  in  his  hand,  and  strength  in  his  sinews,  and  a 
new  created  aspiration  in  his  heart. 

^  A  wise  man  seeks  to  outshine  himself;  a  fool,  to  outshine  others. 
6.  The  hurricane  had  come  by  night,  and  with  one  fell  swash  had 
made  an  irretrievable  sop  of  everything. 

^^^^7^  Argument,  as  usually  managed,   is  the  worst  sort  of  conver- 
sation ;  as  it  is  generally,  in  books,  the  worst  sort  of  reading. 


CAPITALS  AND  PUNCTUATION.  399 

Direction. —  Punctuate,  and  give  reasons: 

1.  Knavery  is  supple  and  can  bend  but  honesty  is  firm  and  upright 
and  yields  not 

2.  Beware  of  little  expenses  a  small  leak  will  sink  a  great  ship 

3.  An  egotist  always  speaks  of  himself  either  in  praise  or  censure 
but  a  modest  man  shuns  making  himself  the  subject  of  his  conversa- 
tion 

4.  If  there  are  any  here  who  have  never  known  misery  and  never 
lost  those  that  were  dear  to  them  let  them  come  out  and  receive  the 
bounty  of  the  queen  but  none  came  forth 

5.  Nature  is  the  master  of  talent  genius  is  the  master  of  nature 

6.  Youth  is  the  aromatic  flower  upon  the  tree  the  grave  life  of  ma- 
turer  years  its  sober  solid  fruit 

7.  In  the  learned  journal  in  the  influential  newspaper  I  discern  no 
form  only  some  irresponsible  shadow  oftener  some  moneyed  corpora- 
tion or  some  dangler  who  hopes  in  the  mask  and  robes  of  his  para- 
graph to  pass  for  somebody 

8.  My  mother  is  ready  for  me  at  her  writing-desk  but  not  half  so 
ready  as  Mr.  Murdstone  in  his  easy-chair  by  the  window 


EXERCISE  C. 

Direction. —  Complete  the  following  sentences  by  the  addition  of  one  or 
more  independent  propositions  ;  justify  your  punctuation  : 

1.  The  king  himself  was  thought  to  be  among  the  slain 

2.  Lord  Bacon  was  convicted  of  receiving  bribes 


3.  He  spent  some  time  in  wandering  among  the  mountains 

4.  You  will   doubtless  either  squander  your  property  by  negli- 
gence   


5.  Experience  keeps  a  dear  school 

6.  I  was  not  content  with  my  situation 

7.  Yonder  palace  was  raised  by  single  stones 

8.  The  next  morning  we  all  set  forward  together  — 

9.  The  wide  the  unbounded  prospect  lies  before  us 

10.  Man  passes  away 

11.  Honor  comes  by  dihgence  

12.  The  gem  has  lost  its  sparkle * 


400  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

The  Exclamation  Point. 

Rule  I. — Interjections,  and  all  words,  phrases,  and  scu- 
te )ices  that  express  emotion,  must  be  followed  by  the  excla- 
mation poifit ;  as,  "Hark!  hark!  I  hear  footsteps!";  "Alas! 
How  are  the  mighty  fallen  !  ";  "  Rouse,  ye  Romans !  rouse, 
ye  slaves!"* 

EXERCISE  CI. 

Direction. —  Punctuate,  and  give  reasons: 

1.  Charge  Chester  charge 

2.  How  sweet  and  soothing  is  this  hour  of  calm 

3.  Reputation  reputation  reputation  O  I  have  lost  my  reputation  I 
have  lost  the  immortal  part  of  myself 

4.  What  a  piece  of  work  is  man  How  noble  in  reason  how  infinite 


*NOTE  I. —  The  exclamation  point  is  equivalent  most  commonly  to  a  period; 
Init  it  may  be  equivalent  to  a  colon,  a  semicolon,  or  a  comma.  If  the  e.xclama- 
tion  is  used  where  in  the  declarative  sentence  a  colon,  a  semicolon,  or  a  comma 
could  be  used,  it  must  be  followed  by  a  small  letter;  as,  "O,  how  exiemive  they 
are!  what  a  fair  and  goodly  inheritance  !"  ; 

"An  heir  of  glory!  a  frail  child  of  dust! 
Helpless  immortal!  insect  infinite! 
A  worm  !  a  god ! — I  tremble  at  myself, 
And  in  myself  am  lost." 

Note  2. — When  an  interjection  is  repeated  several  times,  the  words  are  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  a  comma,  the  exclamation  being  put  only  after  the 
last;  as,  "  Ha,  ha,  ha!  ";   "  Fie,  fie,  fic !  " 

Note  3. — Formerly  the  difference  between  O  and  oh  was  closely  observed, 
O  being  used  in  direct  address;  as,  "  O  earth,  so  full  of  dreary  noises!  "  while  oh 
was  used  more  directly  to  express  emotion  ;  as,  "  Oh,  how  shall  I  get  out  of  this!  " 
This  difference  is  now  often  overlooked. 

O  is  not  immediately  followed  by  an  exclamation  point,  but  oh  requires  the 
exclamation  except  where  the  emotion  runs  through  the  whole  expression,  in 
which  case  oh  is  followed  by  a  comma,  and  the  entire  emotional  expression  by  an 
exclamation  point. 


CAPITALS  AND  PUNCTUATION.  4OI 

in  faculties  in  form  and  moving  how  express  and  admirable  in  action 
how  like  an  angel  in  apprehension  how  like  a  god 

5.  Ingratitude  thou  marble-hearted  fiend 

6.  Soldiers  from  yonder  pyramids  forty  generations  of  men  look 
down  upon  you 

7.  What  a  heart  our  Father  has 

8.  O  holy  Night  from  thee  I  learn  to  bear 
What  man  has  borne  before 


The  Interrogation  Point. 

Rule  I. — Every  sentence  or  expression  asking  a  direet  ques- 
tion must  be  folloived  by  the  interrogatioji  point;  as,  "Is 
this  your  work?";  "Why  did  you  go  so  soon?";  "Shall 
a  man  obtain  the  favor  of  heaven  by  impiety?  by  mur- 
der? by  falsehood?  by  theft?"* 

EXERCISE  CII. 

Direction. —  Punctuate,  and  give  reasons: 

1 .  Do  you  travel  for  health  or  for  pleasure 

2.  Greece  indeed  fell  but  how   did    she  fall     Did  she  fall   like 
Babylon    Did  she  fall  like  Lucifer  never  to  rise  again 

3.  What  is  the  meaning  of  all  this  excitement  of  all  this  tumult  of 
all  this  confusion 

4.  Who  shall  say  me  nay 

5.  Dost  thou  think  that  I  am  an  executioner 

6.  Whence  came  we  and  whither  do  we  go 

7.  Why  do  people  love  you 


•••■Note  i. —  In  regard  to  the  portion  of  discourse  set  off  by  it,  the  interrogation 
point,  like  the  exclamation  point,  is  equivalent  commonly  to  a  period;  but  it 
may  be  equivalent  to  a  colon,  a  semicolon,  or  a  comma.  The  same  directions 
govern  here  that  govern  in  the  case  of  the  exclamation. 

Note  2. —  The  mark  of  interrogation  is  sometimes  inserted  in  a  parenthesis  to 

suggest  doubt;  as,  "The  elegance  (?)  of  this  creature  excites  wonder." 
Rhet.— 34. 


402  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

8.  O  Place     O  Form 

How  often  dost  thou  with  thy  ease  thy  habit 
Wrench  awe  from  fools  and  tie  the  wiser  souls 
To  thy  false  seeming 

9.  Can  I  call  that  home  where  I  anchor  yet 

Though  my  good  man  has  sailed 
Can  I  call  that  home  where  my  nest  was  set 
Now  all  its  hope  hath  failed 

10.  Do  you  hear  the  children  weeping  O  my  brothers 
Ere  the  sorrow  comes  with  years 

The  Dash. 

Rule  I.  —  The  dash  is  used  to  mark  some  sudden  or  abrupt 
change  in  the  construction  or  the  meaning  of  a  sentence ;  as, 
"I  take — eh!  oh!  as  much  exercise — eh!  as  I  can,  Madam 
Gout "; 

"  He  had  no  malice  in  his  mind — 
No  ruffles  on  his  shirt." 

Rule  II.  —  The  dash  is  sometimes  used  to  indicate  a  pause 
made  for  rhetorical  effect ;  as,  ' '  Upon  that  I  kissed  jour  hand, 
and  called  you — my  queoi";  "Some  men  are  full  of  affec- 
tion— affection  for  themsehes. " 

Rule  III. —  IVhen  a  word  or  expression  is  repeated  for 
rhetorical  effect,  a  dash  should  be  inserted  before  each  repeti- 
tion; as,  "Prominent  among  the  philosophers  of  antiquity  is 
Socrates — Socrates  !  who  looked  beyond  the  absurd  fables 
of  his  country's  mythology";  "I  wish,"  said  my  uncle  Toby, 
with  a  deep  sigh — "  I  wish.  Trim,  I  were  asleep." 

Rule  IV.  —  The  dash  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  a  sum- 
vdng  up  of  particulars  ;  as,  ' '  Father,  mother,  brother,  sister, 
— all  arc  dead";  "She  has  rank,  talent,  wealth,  beauty, — 
everything  the  world  prizes." 


CAPITALS  AND  PUNCTUATION.  403 

Rule  V. — A  scries  of  expressions  dependent  Jtpon  some 
cone  hi  ding  clause  should  be  followed  by  a  dash  at  the  end  of 
the  series;  as,  "The  great  men  of  Rome,  her  beautiful 
legends,  her  history,  the  height  to  which  she  rose,  and 
the  depth  to  which  she  fell, — these  make  np  one  half  of  a 
stndenfs  ideal  ivorld. ' ' 

Rule  VI. —  When  words  at  the  end  of  a  scntoice  stand  de- 
tached and  are  in  apposition  ivitJi  preceding  parts  of  the  sen- 
tence, they  are  separated  from  tJie  preceding  portion  by  a  dash ; 
as,  "The  world's  three  greatest  poems  are  epics — Paradise 
Lost,  the  yEneid,  and  the  Iliad. ' ' 

Rule  VII.  —  The  dash  is  sojnetimes  used  to  set  off  paren- 
thetical expressions  ivJien  the  connection  is  not  so  close  as  to 
require  commas ;  as,  "  It  was  a  sight — that  child  in  the  agony 
of  death — that  would  have  melted  any  one  to  pity." 

Rule  VIII. — A  dash  is  nscd  to  denote  the  omission  of 
letters  or  figures ;  as, 

"J sS h     .     .     .     James  Smith." 

"Matthew  x.  :  1-4      .     .     Matthew  x.  :  i,  2,  3,  4." 
"Session  1887-8     .     .     .     Session  1887,  1888." 

Rule  IX.  —  When  a  title  or  a  heading,  instead  of  standing 
over  a  paragraph,  is  run  in  so  as  to  make  a  part  of  the  par- 
agraph, it  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  line  by  a  dash  ; 
as,  ''Simplicity  of  Narration.  —  Much  of  the  effect  of  story- 
telling depends,"  etc. 

If,  at  the  end  of  a  paragraph,  the  name  of  the  author  or 
the  book  from  which  the  paragraph  has  been  taken  is 
given,  it  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  paragraph  by  a 
dash;  as,  "There  is  no  true  orator  who  is  not  a  hero. — 
Emerson.'' 


404  COMf-OSITION   AND  RHETORIC. 

When  the  name  of  the  author  is  not  in  the  same  par- 
agraph, but  on  a  line  by  itself,  no  dash  is  needed ;  as, 

"There  is  a  great  deal  of  unmapped  country  within  us 
which  would  have  to  be  taken  into  account  in  explanation 
of  our  gusts  and  storms. 

''George  Eliot r 

Rule  X.  —  TJie  parts  of  a  conversation  or  a  dialogue,  if 
run  into  a  paragraph  instead  of  beginning  separate  lines,  are 
separated  by  dashes  zvhen  qitotation  marks  are  not  used ;  as, 
"Do  you  give  your  time  to  this  matter? — Yes,  sir.  —  Do 
you  enjoy  the  work? — I  find  it  a  pleasant  occupation." 

EXERCISE  cm. 
Direction. — Punctuate,  and  explain: 

1.  Children  dear  was  it  yesterday  call  yet  once  that  she  went 
away 

2.  I  ahem  I  forget 

3.  Perhaps  he  did  see  Nora  Heaven  only  knows  and  so  died 

4.  What  do  you  mean  what  is  it 

5.  Then  too  at  sea  to  use  a  homely  but  expressive  phrase  you 
miss  a  man  so  much 

6.  Take  her  said  the  mother  take  her  I  am  glad  to  be  rid  of  her 

7.  A  third  and  he  is  the  master's  favorite  shall  be  a  worthy  suc- 
cessor to  the  old  Puritan  ministers  now  in  their  graves 

8.  He  knew  not  that  a  phantom  of  wealth  had  thrown  a  golden 
hue  upon  its  waters  nor  that  one  of  love  had  sighed  softly  to  their 
murmur  nor  that  one  of  death  had  threatened  to  crimson  them  with 
his  blood  all  in  the  brief  hour  since  he  lay  down  to  sleep 

9.  Conceit  may  puff  a  man  up  but  never  prop  him  up  Ruskin 
10.  Greece  Rome  Carthage  where  are  they 

1 1.  He  suffered  but  his  pangs  a.re  o'er 
Enjoyed  but  his  delights  are  fled 
Had  friends  his  friends  are  now  no  more 
And  foes  his  foes  are  dead 


CAPITALS  AND  PUNCTUATION.  405 

13.  Life  is  trod  under  foot  Life  the  one  block 

Of  marble  that's  vouchsafed  wherefrom  to  carve 
Our  great  thoughts  white  and  godlike  to  shine  down 
The  future  Life  the  irredeemable  block 
Which  one  o'erhasty  chisel-dint  oft  mars 

13.  Friends  neighbors  my  own  kindred  were  all  against  the 
project 

14.  He  has  a  weakness  a  weakness  of  the  head  as  well  as  of  the 
heart 

The  Hyphen. 

Rule  I.  —  The  JiypJicn  is  used  to  connect  the  parts  of  a 
compound  ivord ;  as,  ''Rose-tree'' ;  ''Fellozu-stiident.'" 

Rule  II.  —  The  hyphen  is  placed  at  the  end  of  a  line  to 
shozv  that  a  part  of  the  last  word  has  been  carried  over  to 
the  next  line ;  as,  "Caesar  now  leaves  Gaul,  crosses  the  Rubi- 
con, and  enters  Italy."* 

The  Caret. 

Rule  I. — If  a  letter,  a  word,  or  an  expression  is  omitted, 
a  caret  is  placed  zvhcj'e  the  omission  occurs,  aiui  the  omitted 
part  interlined ;  as, 

scenes 
"I  have  revisited  the  of  my  childhood." 

A 


■•■■Note. —  In  dividing  words,  syllables  should  never  be  broken,  but  the  word 
should  be  separated  by  closing  the  line  with  a  full  syllable  and  a  hyphen,  and 
beginning  the  next  line  with  the  next  syllable. 

To  divide  words  into  syllables,  the  practice  most  common  is  to  join  con- 
sonants to  the  vowels  whose  sounds  they  modify ;  as,  in-dl-cate,  ex-pla-na-tion, 
ge-og-ra-phy ,  ce-les-tial.  In  all  cases  where  there  is  doubt  as  to  the  proper 
division  of  a  word,  decide  the  matter  bv  referring  to  the  dictionarv. 


406  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

The  Marks  of  Parenthesis. 

The  marks  of  p antithesis  [()]  are  used  to  inclose  some  ex- 
planatory word  or  phrase  ivhich  has  little  or  no  connection 
%vit]i  the  rest  of  the  sentence ;  as,  "I  told  him  {and  wJio  woidd 
not?)  just  what  I  thought  of  him."* 

EXERCISE  CIV. 

Direction.  —  Punctuate,  and  explain: 

1.  The  senator  from  South  Carolina  Mr.  Calhoun  then  rose  to  speak 

2.  Our  new  cottage  is  it  not  a  pretty  one  is  very  comfortable 

3.  vStyle  Latin  stylus  refers  to  the  expression  of  thought 

4.  I  here  give  a  fourth  part  of  all  my  wealth  three  cents  to  this 
cause 

5.  The  bliss  of  man  could  pride  that  blessing  find 
Is  not  to  act  or  think  beyond  mankind 

6.  Seven  years  of  scarcity  I  know  that  one  of  them  might  be  called 
an  average  season  were  followed  by  two  of  plenty 


*NoTE.  —  The  sentence  containing  the  parenthesis,  and  the  part  withiu  the? 
curves,  are  both  punctuated  independently  of  each  other;  the  sentence  is  punc- 
tuated as  though  it  contained  no  parenthesis ;  and  the  part  within  the  curves, 
just  as  if  no  parenthesis  were  used. 

If  a  parenthesis  is  inserted  at  a  place  in  the  sentence  where  no  point  is  re- 
quired, no  point  should  be  put  either  before  or  after  the  marks  of  parenthesis. 
Should  the  sentence  require  other  marks,  they  must  precede  or  follow  the  marks 
of  parenthesis,  according  to  the  character  of  the  parenthetical  expression.  When 
the  words  in  parenthesis  have  a  point  of  their  own  after  them,  the  point  which 
would  be  used  if  there  were  no  parenthesis  is  placed  before  the  first  curve, 
and  the  point  belonging  to  the  parenthesis  is  placed  before  the  last  curve;  as, 
"While  we  all  desire  fame,  (and  why  should  we  not  desire  it?)  we  should  do 
nothing  unfair  to  gain  it."  When  a  point  is  necessary  at  the  place  where  the 
pnrenthesis  is  thrown  in,  and  none  is  required  in  the  parenthesis,  the  point  should 
follow  the  parenthesis;  as,  "If  we  exercise  right  principles  (and  we  can  not  have 
them  unless  rve  exercise  them),  they  must  fie  perpetually  on  the  increase." 


CAPITALS  AND  PUNCTUATION.  407 

The  Quotation  Marks/ 

Quotation  marks  are  two  inverted  commas  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  part  quoted,  and  two  apostrophes  at  its  close ; 
thus,  ("  "). 

Rule  I. — A  direct  quotation  should  be  inclosed  by  quota- 
tion marks;  as,  "Daily,  with  souls  that  cringe  and  plot, 
we  Sinais  climb  and  know  it  not." — Lowell.^ 

Rule  II. — A  quotation  zuiihin  a  quotation  is  inclosed  in 
single  quotation  marks;  as,  "The  bullet-headed  man  has 
outstripped  the  broad-browed  man  in  everything  he  under- 
took; and  people  say,  '  Where  is  yo2ir  phrenology  ? '  In  reply, 
I  say,  'Look  at  that  bullet-headed  vian,  and  see  zvJiat  lie  has 
to  drive  his  bullet-head  with!'  His  stomach  gives  evidence 
that  he  has  natural  forces  to  carry  forward  his  purposes." 
— Henry  Ward  Beecher,  Lecture  on  Preaching. 

Rule  III. — Li  a  succession  of  quoted  paragraphs  the  in- 
veiied  commas  are  used  at  the  beginning  of  each  paragraph, 
but  the  apostrophes  are  used  at  the  close  of  the  last  para- 
grapJi  only. 

Rule  IV.  —  The  quotation  retains  its  oivn  punctuation. 
An  exclamation  or  an  interrogation  point  belonging  to  the 
quotation  must  stand  within  the  quotation  marks;  as.  He 
asked  me,  "  Why  do  you  zueep  ?" 

When  the  exclamation  or  the  interrogation  belongs  to 
the  entire  sentence,  it  should  be  placed  outside  the  quota- 
tion marks ;  as.  Why  did  he  not  say  at  once,  ' '  /  will 
come''  ? 


*NoTE. —  A  direct  quotation  is  one  in  which  the  exact  language  is  reported. 
When  we  make  no  pretension  to  use  the  exact  language,  but  give  merely  the 
substance  in  our  own  words,  the  marks  of  quotation  are  unnecessary. 


40S  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC: 

RuL.E  V. —  J I  Vie  n  the  parts  of  a  direct  quotation  are  sepa- 
rated by  anything  parenthetical,  qiwtation  marks  should  be 
used  to  i)ielose  each  part  of  the  quotation  so  separated ;  as, 
"/  will  take  that  office  on  myself"  said  the  captain  ;  ''pass 
a  light  into  the  iveather  maifi-chaitis." 

Rule  VI. — A  direct  qnotatioii  is  generally  preceded  by  a 
colon;  but  if  the  qiiotation  is  marly  some  short  saying,  a 
comma  is  sufficient. 

When  the  quotation  is  formally  introduced — introduced 
by  the  words/tV/c'Tt'/;/^,  as  follows,  tJius,  first,  secondly,  etc. — 
it  should  be  preceded  by  the  colon ;  when  it  is  informal — 
arising  naturally  from  the  sentence  in  which  it  stands — it 
should  be  preceded  by  a  comma;  thus,  Governor Dix  made 
the  following  statement:  "Our  finances  are  in  a  sound  con- 
dition." Here  the  quotation  is  formally  introduced.  The 
wounded  hero  said,  "Now,  God  be  praised,  I  die  happy." 
Here  the  quotation  is  informal. 

EXERCISE  CV. 

Direction. — Justify  the  punctuation  in  the  following  examples: 

^.  Themistocles  said,  "I  beseech  you  to  betake  yourselves  to  your 
ships." 
I 2.  These  were  the  words  of  Themistocles:  "  I  beseech  you,  O  Athe- 
nians, to  betake  yourselves  to  your  ships." 

3.  "Will  you  not  listen  to  my  entreaties,  O  Athenians?"  inquired 
Themistocles. 
J      .4.  Themistocles  inquired  whether   the  Athenians  would  not  listen 
to  his  entreaties. 

5.  Sir  Phihp  Francis  says,  "  With  a  callous  heart  there  can  be  no 

genius  in  imagination  or  wisdom  in  the  mind  ;  and  therefore  the  prayer, 

with  equal  truth  and  sublimity,  says,  '  Incline  our  hearts  to  wisdom'." 

i,*-   6.  "Description,"  he  said,   "is  to  the  author  of  romance  exactly 

what  drawing  and  tinting  are  to  a  painter;  words  are  his  colors." 


CAPITALS  AND  PUNCTUATION.  4O9 

Printers'  Marks. 

The  following  are  the  most  important  of  the  remaining 
marks  used  in  printed  discourse.  Some  of  them  are  used 
wholly  by  printers,  and  the  others  are  mostly  so  used : 

1.  Accents  are  used  to  mark  the  stress  of  voice  on  vow- 
els. The  Acute  [']  denotes  a  rising  tone  of  voice,  or 
sometimes  a  simple  stress ;  the  Grave  p]  a  falling  tone,  or 
that  the  final  vowel  over  which  it  is  placed,  as  in  French 
words  and  words  ending  in  ed,  is  sounded ;  the  Circum- 
flex [a]  that  the  vowel  over  which  it  is  placed  is  sounded 
with  both  a  rising  and  a  falling  tone,  as  ah  in  sarcasm. 

2.  Braces. — These  are  used  to  show  that  two  or  more 
terms  are  connected  with  another  term ;  as, 


A  -J    ^     TT-  ^         f  Philology, 

Aids  to  History  ]   .     .      "•',' 

^   [  Anthropok 


Anthropology. 

3.  Brackets. — When  a  parenthetical  expression  is  too 
little  connected  with  the  text  for  inclusion  in  marks  of 
parenthesis,  Brackets  []  are  used.  Such  cases  are:  (i)  to 
inclose  some  word  or  words  necessary  to  correct  an  error 
or  afford  an  explanation;  (2)  in  dictionaries,  to  inclose 
the  pronunciation  or  etymology  of  a  word ;  (3)  in  dramas, 
etc.,  to  inclose  directions  to  the  players. 

4.  The  Cedilla. — This  mark  is  placed  under  the  letter 
c  [g]  to  show  that  it  has  the  sound  of  s ;  as,  facade. 

5.  The  Diaeresis  ["]  is  sometimes  placed  over  the 
second  of  two  vowels  to  show  that  they  are  pronounced 
separately;  as,  zoology,  cooperation. 

6.  Marks  of  Ellipsis  [**** ]  denote  the 

omission  of  letters,  words,  sentences,  and  paragraphs. 

Rhet.— 35. 


4IO  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

7.  Marks  of  Emphasis  call  attention  to  some  statement. 
They  are,  (i)  the  Index  [S&^],  and  (2)  the  Asterism  [*,j,*]. 

8.  Reference-marks  are  generally  used  to  refer  to  mar- 
ginal notes.  They  are,  (i)  the  Asterisk  [*],  (2)  the  Obelisk, 
or  Dagger  [f],  (3)  the  Double  Dagger  [J],  (4)  the  Section 
[§],  (5)  Parallel  lines  [||],  and  (6)  the  Paragraph  [^].  When 
a  greater  number  is  required,  these  marks  are  either  doubled, 
or  letters  and  numbers  are  employed. 

g.  The  Section  [§]  indicates  a  subdivision  of  a  chapter. 
ID.   The  Tilde  [N]  is  a  character  written  above  the  letter 
;/   in   Spanish  words,   to  show  that  the   letter  should   be 
sounded  as  if  spelled  with  a.  jy ;  as,  caTion  (canyon). 

11.  Quantity-marks  serve  to  indicate  the  quantity  of  a 
vowel.  The  Macron  [-],  placed  over  a  vowel,  shows  that 
it  has  the  long  sound,  as  a  in  age.  The  breve  [-],  placed 
over  a  vowel,  shows  that  it  has  the  short  sound,  as  a  in  ran. 

12.  The  Ditto  Mark  ["]  is  used  to  indicate  that  the 
words  above  are  to  be  repeated ;  as, 

10  lbs.  Butter  @,  50c $5-oo 

9   "         "        "  60c 5.40 

This  mark  should  not  be  used  in  repeating  the  names  of 
persons.      Every  name  should  be  written  in  full. 

13.  Leaders  are  dots  used  to  carry  the  eye  from  words 
at  the  beginning  of  the  line  to  something  at  the  end  of  it, 
usually  the  number  of  the  page ;  as. 

Invention page  40. 

14.  Italics  are  letters  inclined  to  the  right.  They  (i)  mark 
an  emphatic  word ;  and  (2)  in  the  English  Bible  show  that 
the  words  so  printed  are  not  in  the  original. 

In  writing.  Italics  are  indicated  by  drawing  one  line  under 
the  word  to  be  italicized. 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Acatalectic  verse 344 

Accents,  explained 40Q 

Accepted  sense,  words  in  their 140 

"Accord,"  misuse  of. 146 

Accuracy  of  news  items 324 

Acrostic,  defined 354 

Active  voice  varies  expression 106-108 

Address,  defined 310 

Adjuncts,  the  placing  of. 183,  184 

Adverbs,  conjunctive 25 

single-word 181 

Allegory 230-232 

Alliteration,  beauty  of  expression  pro- 
moted by 277 

"All  of  them,"  criticised 144 

"Allude,"  misuse  of 148 

"Almost,"  misuse  of 146 

Ambiguity,  defined 180 

Amphibrach,  defined 340 

Analysis '7>  30 

Anapest,  defined 339 

Ancient  and  modern  forms,  union  of. .       85 

Anglo-Saxon  derivatives 154 

Annals,  defined 320 

Anti-climax,  defined 207 

Antithesis 238,  239 

"Anyhow,"  vulgar  use  of 142 

Apostrophe 235 

rules  for  the  point 382 

Arrangement,  variety  of 30 

Article,  omission  of  the 186 

"At  least,"  position  of 182 

Autobiography,  defined 321 

Auxiliary  with  simple  forms 85 

"Avocation,"  misuse  of 142 

Awfulness,  relation  to  sublimity 279 


"  Balance,"  misuse  of 148 

"  Banister,"  criticised 143 


PAGE 

Barbarism,  defined 135 

Bathos,  defined 207 

"  Beautifully,"  misuse  of 147 

Beauty  of  expression 275-7 

Biography,  defined 321 

"  Both,"  misuse  of 143 

Braces,  explained 409 

Brackets,  explained 409 

Burlesque,  defined 268 

"  But,"  misuse  of 141 

"  But  that,"  criticised 142 


"  Calculate,"  misuse  of 148 

Capitals,  rules  for 376 

value  of 375 

Caret,  rule  for 405 

Catalectic  verse 344 

Cedilla,  explained 409 

Chronicle,  defined 320 

Circumlocution,  defined 120,  197 

Clauses,  adjective 21,  32 

adverbial 24,  32 

bad  effect  of  supplementary 193 

conditional 32 

contraction  of 54,  55-63 

position  of 31 

relative,  when  to  avoid 191 

restrictive,  and  non-restrictive 22 

substantive 26 

words  introducing 21,  22,  23,  25,  27 

Clearness  of  construction . .  180-189,  213,  324 

omissions  that  destroy 186 

Climax 206 

Colon,  rules  for 396 

Comedy,  defined 374 

Comma,  rules  for 382-396 

Complex  sentence,  analysis  of. 30 

defined 21 

example  of 10 

(411) 


412 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC, 


PAGE 

Complex  sentence,  punctuation  of. . ,  392 

synthesis  of 29-34 

Composition,  defined 9 

subjects  for -^$3 

Compound  sentence,  adversative  . . .  .35,  38 

alternative 36,  38 

complex  form  of. 37 

contracted 39 

copulative 35,  37 

defined 35 

illative 36>  3^ 

punctuation  of 396 

structure  of  members  of 41 

synthesis  of 41 

Conciseness,  defined 19S 

sublimity  promoted  by 281 

violations  of. 196 

Concord 76-85 

adjectives  and  adverbs 84 

agreement  of  tenses 81 

auxiliaries  should  harmonize,  etc. . .  82 
correspondent  parts  of  a  sentence 

constructed  alike 85 

existing  facts  require  present  tense  82 

indicative  and  subjunctive  forms. . .  83 

nominative  case 76 

noun  complement  of  a  passive  verb.  78 
noun  or  pronoun   following  the  in- 
finitive of  "  be  ".  ■ 78 

noun  or  pronoun  in  apposition 79 

objective  case 77 

past  tense  and  perfect  participle  of 

irregular  verbs 80 

pronouns  must  agree  with  their  an- 
tecedents    79 

subject  of  infinitive  complement. ...  77 

subject  of  participial  noun 78 

verb  must  agree  with  its  subject —  80 

Condensation,  illustrated 197 

of  news  items 324 

*'  Condign,"  misuse  ofj 145 

"  Confirmed,"  misuse  of 144 

Conjunctions,  adversative 35 

alternative 36 

co-ordinate 35 

copulative 35 

illative 36 

omission  of 36,  187 

subordinate 25 

Connectives,  proper  use  of 199 


PACE 

Contraction  of  phrases,  clauses,  and 

sentences 54-63 

used  in  poetry 338 

Contrasted  members,  construction  of.     202 

"  Couple,"  misuse  of 148 

Couplet,  defined 350 

D 

Dactyl,  defined 339 

Dash,  rules  for 402 

"  Deceiving,"  misuse  of. 143 

"  Demean,"  misuse  of 148 

Denying  the  contrary 120,  122 

Development,  explained 75 

Diaeresis,  explained 409 

Diction 133-178 

Didactic  poetry 371 

Direct  form  of  discourse,  explained. 112,  113 

"  Directly,"  misuse  of 144 

Discourse 309-311 

Distich,  defined 350 

"  Doubt,"  incompleteness  of 142 

Dramatic  poetry 374 

E 

"  Either,"  misuse  of 143 

Elegiac  stanza 354 

Elegy,  defined 370 

Elements,  transformation  of 52 

union  of  dissimilar 85 

Elision,  defined 338 

Ellipsis,  marks  of. 409 

"  Emblem,"  misuse  of 148 

Emphasis,  figures  of 220,  238 

marks  of 410 

Emphatic  words,  position  of. 198 

Energy  of  discourse,  defined 195 

"  Enough,"  position  of. 182 

Epic  poetry 372 

forms  of. 373 

Epigram 240,  24 1 

"  Equally  as,"  corrected 144 

Equivocal  terms 1^2 

Essays,  defined 

Euphemism 

Exclamation,  energy  promoted  by.. 

in  varying  expression 

point,  rules  for 


INDEX. 


413 


Exercises  in  Allegory 

Analysis 

Antithesis 

Apostrophe 

Changing  the  Voice  of  a  Verb. 
Circumlocution  . 


PAGE 

.  232 
.20,  34 
.  239 
.  236 
.  108 
124 


PAGE 
■       3" 

.64,  65 

.     149 

. .     106 

III 


Clearness  of  Construction 188,  213 

Climax ^'" 

Composition 45,  66,  SB,  98,  125,  250 

Concord 86,87 

Construction    of  Contrasted    Mem- 
bers      2'  = 

Contraction 36-63 

Denying  the  Contrary 122 

Diction "78 

Direct  forms  of  Discourse "3 

Epigram ^'^^ 

Euphemism "^3 

Exclamatory  form  of  Sentences. . . .     no 

Expansion 64,  65 

Expression.variety  of.  108-113,118,121-124. 

Figures  of  Speech.  .222,  226,  227,  232,  233, 

23s,  236,  239,  241,  242,  244-249. 

Harmony ^'7 

Hyperbole ^44 

Indirect  forms  of  Discourse "3 

Interrogation '°9 

Irony ^42 

"It"  as  an  anticipative  subject...     112 

Litotes =■♦4 

Metaphor 226,  227 

Metonymy ^33 

Order  of  Words "8 

Paragraph 95,  96.  260 

Paraphrase 299,  304,  325 

Pathos 272-275 

Personification 229 

Propriety  of  Diction 251 

Purity  of  Diction 138 

Repetition 229 

Simile 222-224 

Simplicity  of  Diction 176,  177 

Specific  Words 210 

Strength  of  Construction 208-213 

Sublimity  of  Expression 281-284 

Synecdoche 235 

Synonyms 169,  17° 

Unity  of  Construction i93 

Wit 272-275 

Words  of  Similar  Meaning 121 


Exordium,  defined 

Expansion 

"  Expect,"  misuse  of. 

Expression,  to  vary 

by  anticipative  subject . . 

by  contraction ^°7 

by  direct  discourse "2 

by  exclamation 11° 

by  expansion '°7 

by  interrogation 109 

by  substitution i°7 

by  transposition "5 

by  voice  of  the  verb 108 


F 


Fable =31 

Farce,  defined 374 

Fiction 322 

Figures  of  Speech 218-244 

Classification  of 220 

Allegory 23° 

Antithesis 238 

Apostrophe 235 

Epigram 240 

Hyperbole 243 

Irony 241 

Litotes 244 

Metaphor 224 

Metonymy 232 

Personification 228 

Simile      220 

Synecdoche 234 

Vision 237 

"Folks,"   criticised '45 

Foot,  poetical,  defined 337 

Foreign  words '36 

"  From  thence,"  etc.,  criticised i43 


"  Got,"  misuse  of. 


H 


"  Had  have,"  criticised '42 

Harmony,  defined 214-217 

Historical,  composition,  varieties  of  . .     320 


poem  , 


373 


414 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 


PAGE 

History 319 

"  How,"  misuse  of 144 

Humor,  defined 270 

Hyperbole,  defined 243-4 

Hypercatalectic  verse 344 

Hyphen,  rules  for 405 

I 

Iambus  defined 339 

Ideas,  faulty  connection  of 191 

"  Illy,"  criticised 143 

Imagery,  its  effect  on  expression 276 

"  Inaugurate,"  misuse  of 149 

Indicative  mode 84 

"  Indices,"  misuse  of 145 

Indirect  form  of  discourse..... 112-13 

Infinitive  mode 8t 

Interrogation,  energy  promoted  by  .    109, 
204-205. 

point,  rules  for 401 

Intuition,  figures  of 220 

Inversion,  energy  promoted  by 204 

Irony,  defined 241,  242 

Italics,  explained 410 

"It,"  anticipative  subject in,  112 

L 

Latin  derivatives 153,  154 

Leaders,  explained 410 

"  Least,"  misuse  of 143 

Lecture,  defined 310 

"Less,"  misuse  of 142 

Letters,  address 312,  317 

"  Like,"  misuse  of 142 

"  Likewise,"  misuse  of 142 

Litotes 244 

M 

Measure,  poetical,  defined 336 

Melodrama,  defined 374 

Memoir,  defined 320 

Metaphor 224-237 

Meter,  defined 336 

various 355,  356 

Metonymy 232 

Metrical  romance 373 

Mock-heroic,  defined 269 

Modes,  incongruent  union  of 85 


PAGE 

Moral  greatness 280 

"  Mutual,"  misuse  of 146 

"Myself,"  misuse  of. 147 

i 
N 

"  Name,"  misuse  of 149 

"  Neither,"  misuse  of 143 

Newly-coined  words 136 

News-writing 323 

"  Nice,"  misuse  of 146 

"  No,"  misuse  of. 143 

Not,  position  of 1S2 

Not-but,  etc.,  position  of 182 

Notes,  formal,  style  of 316 

O 

Obscurity,  defined 180 

sublimity  promoted  by 279 

Obsolescent  words 136 

Obsolete  words 135 

"Older,"  criticised 146 

Only,  rule  for i8i 

Oration,  defined 309 

Order  of  words 115,  198 

grammatical  and  rhetorical 115-119 

Ottava  Rima 353 

"Overflown,"  misuse  of 146 

P 

Parable,  defined 231 

Paragraph,  continuity  of 256 

defined 93 

directions  in  forming 93 

illustrations  of 94,  259 

synthesis  of  sentences  into 93 

unity  of 256 

variety  of 258 

Paraphrase 297-308,  325 

Parenthesis,  incorrect  use  of 192 

marks  of 406 

Parody 269 

Particles 149 

omission  of 199 

"  splitting  " 200 

"  Party,"  misuse  of 142 

Passive  voice  in  varying  expression..  loS 

Pastoral  poetry 370 

Pathos 271-27S 


INDEX. 


415 


Periodic  sentence 

Period,  rules  for 

Peroration,  defined 

Personification 22^ 

Phrase,  absolute 

adj  ecti  val 

infinitive 

nature  of 

participial 

position  of. 

prepositional 

stereotyped 

tests  of  position  of. 

use  of 

Phraseology,  variation  of. 

"  Plenty,"  misuse  of 

Plural  with  singular  forms 

Poetical  constructions 

adjective  precedes  the  verb  "  to  be  " 

adjectives  used  for  adverbs 

adverbial  phrases  not  in  juxtaposi- 
tion  

"and-and"  for  "both-and,"  etc... 

noun  precedes  the  adjective 

object  precedes  the  verb 

omission  of  the  antecedent 

omission  of  the  article 

omission  of  the  conjunctive  particles 

omission  of  the  verb  "  to  do  " 

personal  pronouns  with  tKeir  ante- 
cedents  

prepositions  are  suppressed 

pronoun  used  in  the  imperative 

verb  precedes  the  nominative 

Poetic  feet 

licenses 116 

pauses 

Poetry,  defined 

didactic 

dramatic 

elegiac 

epic 

form  of 

lyric 

pastoral i 

satirical 

Position  of  words 180, 

Power,  feelings  awakened  by 

Precision 

Preposition,  omission  of 


PAGB 
203 

381 

?,  229 
13 


150 

15 

II 

120 

141 

8S 
116 
117 
117 

117 
117 
._ii6 
116 
116 
116 
116 
116 

117 
117 
117 
116 
339 
117 
3^7 
368 
371 
374 
370 
372 
368 
369 
370 
372 
181 
278 
152 
186 


"  Previous,"  misuse  of 147 

Pronouns,  personal 185 

Propriety  of  diction,  defined 139-151 

Prose  composition 309-324 

Prosody,  defined 336 

Provincialisms 137 

Pun 269 

Punctuation,  defined 380 

marks  used  in 380 

Purity  of  diction 13S-139 

Pyrrhic,  defined 340 


Quantity  marks 410 

"  Quantity,''  misuse  of 144 

Quatrain,  defined 350 

Quotation  marks,  rules  for 407 


Radical,  words  from  the  same 140 

Recasting,  explained 120,  124 

Redundancy 196 

Reference  marks,  explained 410 

Relative,  omission  of  the 186 

"  Rendition,"  misuse  of. 145 

Repetition 201,  209 

Reproduction,  directions  for 45 

"  Restive,"  misuse  of 148 

Rhetorical  order  of  words 115 

Rhetoric,  defined 9 

Rhyme,  alliterative 347 

assonantal 348 

consonantal 348 

defined 347 

double 349 

sectional 349 

single 349 

triple 349 

Rhyme-royal,  defined 350 

Rhythm,  beauty  of  expression  due  to.  277 

defined 338 

influence  on  English  poetry 337 

Romances 323 


Sarcasm 268 

Satire 268 

Satirical  poetry 37a 


4i6 


COMPOSITION    AND  RHETORIC. 


PAGE 

Scanning,  defined 33^ 

Section  mark,  explained 41° 

"  Seldom  or  ever,"  criticised 143 

Semicolon,  rules  for 39^-39^ 

Sentence,  complex 21 

compound 35 

compromise 204 

construction  of 180 

defined 9 

exercises  in 210,  211 

formation  of. 10 

loose 203 

miscellaneous  examples  in 213 

periodic 203 

qualities  of  construction  of 180 

simple 9 

Sermon,  defined 310 

Simile 220-224 

Simplicity  of  diction,  defined 174-177 

sublimity  promoted  by 281 

Smoothness,  beauty  of  expression  pro- 
moted by 277 

Song,  sacred 369 

secular 369 

Sonnet,  defined 35' 

Sound,  sublimity  promoted  by 279 

Specific  words 202,  210 

Speech,  explained 3'° 

Spenserian  stanza,  defined 351 

Spondee,  defined 34° 

Stanza,  defined 35° 

"  Stopping,"  misuse  of 145 

Story,  subjects  for 131 

Strength  of  construction 195-213 

Style,  defined 132 

extracts  for  study  of 284-296 

varieties  of 284,  285 

Subject,  omission  of 186 

frequent  change  of 190 

sublimity  of 280 

Subjunctive  mode,  use  of 83,  84 

Sublimity  of  expression 277-284 

exercises  in 281-284 

"  Such,"  misuse  of '44 

Synecdoche 234.  235 

Synonyms '53-i70 

examples  of 154-168 

Synthesis  of  complex  sentences 29 

of  compound  sentences 41 

of  paragraphs  into  a  theme 263 


PAGE 

Synthesis   of   sentences   into   a  para- 
graph        93 

of  simple  sentences 16 

T 

Tautology 197 

Technical  terms 138 

Terza  Rima 353 

"There,"  an  introductory  word...  107,  112 

Tilde,  explained 4'° 

Topical  outline,  preparation  of 73 

use  of. 48 

examples  of 48,  5i>  68 

Tragedy,  defined 374 

Transformation  of  elements 52-66 

Transposition  of  parts  of  a  sentence. .     115 

Travels,  a  book  of,  defined 319 

Travesty,  defined 269 

Treatise,  defined 318 

Tribrach,  defined 34° 

Triplet,  defined 35^ 

Trochee,  defined 339 

"  Try  and,"  criticised 147 

"  Try,"  misuse  of 143 

U 

Unity  of  construction 190-193 

V 

Variety  of  expression 106 

Vastness,  sublimity  promoted  by 278 

V  erb,  omission  of 187 

Verse,  anapestic 345 

blank 349 

dactylic 34^ 

defined 33^ 

iambic 342 

trochaic 344 

Versification,  defined 336 

exercises  in 357-366 

Vision 237 

W 

"  Wearies,"  criticised 141 

"  Were,''  misuse  of 142 

"  Whole,"  misuse  of '45 

Wit,  defined 267-275 

"  With,"  misuse  of. 141 

Words,  embodied  in  a  sentence 11 

of  similar  meaning 120,  121 


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